In this article, you can find information about the Forum of Constantine, which was built in Istanbul, the capital of the Roman Empire in the East. You can also see at the end of the article why the Column of Constantine in the Forum began to be called “Cemberlitas” during the Ottoman period.

In order to talk about the history of the Forum of Constantine, we will have to take a journey through history. We will also talk about Constantine moving his throne from Rome to Constantinople and the architectural development of the new capital. Let’s start by hoping you enjoy this article.

Reforms of Emperor Constantine in Rome

Emperor Constantine holds a special place in history because he was the first Roman Emperor to accept Christianity. The Roman Empire, which had a polytheistic belief, entered a new era with Constantine’s reign and completed its religious transformation within the following 50 years.

Emperor Constantine’s reforms determined the future of the world and laid the foundations for a new Roman Empire centered in the East (Byzantium). The ancient capital of Rome, which was under threat from the endless attacks of the barbarians, lost its importance from the time of Constantine and was replaced by Constantinople (Istanbul).

New Capital Constantinople

Constantine’s emergence from the Tetrarchy Period as the sole ruler signaled a change. The four-emperor regime brought by Emperor Diocletian collapsed in just 30 years and was replaced by a single emperor once again.

Emperor Constantine, who was greatly respected by the Roman army, gained infinite power after defeating his last rival, Licinius. He was now the sole ruler of Roman lands stretching from Spain to Mesopotamia.

The first thing Constantine did was to abandon Rome, the symbol of the old empire. He wanted to establish a capital closer to the trade routes in the Eastern Mediterranean.

It is rumored that Constantine considered Nicomedia and Troy as the new capital. However, he ultimately decided on Byzantium, a small Greek colony. Byzantium was the first hill of Istanbul, where historical monuments such as Topkapi Palace and Hagia Sophia are located today.

By order of Emperor Constantine, construction of the new capital was undertaken between 324 and 330. The city, initially named “New Rome”, was to resemble the ancient capital of the empire, Rome. Architects, engineers and artists flocked here. At the end of intensive work, the construction of the new capital was completed on May 11, 330.

The new capital Constantinople, established roughly within the borders of today’s Sultanahmet district, did not yet cover the entirety of today’s Historical Peninsula.

The city, which developed rapidly since the day it was founded, began to be insufficient during the reign of Emperor Theodosius II (408-450) and was therefore expanded.

The famous walls of Constantinople (Theodosian Walls) were built in 413. Thus, the legendary Byzantine capital, which spread completely over the peninsula south of the Bosphorus, emerged.

Forum of Constantine, an Iconic Building

During Emperor Constantine’s construction of the New Rome, many monumental structures were added to the city. The most important of these were of course the Great Palace, the Church of the Apostles, the Hippodrome and the Forum of Constantine.

Not much has survived from these first monumental structures of the city. However, the Column of Constantine, which adorned the center of the Forum of Constantine, can still be seen.

When we examine these structures built in the early period of the city, we see that the emperor attached great importance to the new capital. He wanted the city to be magnificent and sacred just like Rome. The Great Palace, where the emperors would live, and the Hippodrome, where races would be held in honor of the emperor, were built side by side.

In addition, the Forum of Constantine, a giant square where people would come together, was designed. Finally, the Church of the Holy Apostles, dedicated to the apostles of Jesus, was built to attribute holiness to the city.

The Mystery of the Column of Constantine

In Roman culture, where monumental columns were very important, the Forum of Constantine was also given a sacred meaning. Because, according to Christian historians, some sacred relics were placed under the column in the Forum of Constantine.

The wooden handle of the ax that allowed Noah to build his ship, the rock from which Moses gushed water, and a piece of the true cross on which Jesus was crucified were buried under the column. Of course, these claims are just rumors and their authenticity has not been proven. However, they still attribute mystery to the Column of Constantine.

The Column of Constantine, located right next to the Cemberlitas Tram Station in today’s Istanbul, is purple, the royal color during the Roman period. This rare color also adorned imperial robes and boots.

Between Paganism and Christianity

According to Christian historians and tradition, Emperor Constantine, who was considered a “Saint”, was a perfect Christian. However, when we examine the things Constantine did in depth, we see that he had his own unique understanding of religion.

Christianity, which had been suppressed by Roman emperors for years, was released with the Edict of Milan issued by Constantine and had just begun to spread to the masses in Roman lands.

In this period when religious lines were still unclear, we see that Constantine had a harmonizing approach. The emperor wanted to create a blend between the Roman people, who were still largely Pagan, and Christianity and tried to bring the two sides together.

The reflections of this transition period were hidden in the column in the Forum of Constantine. At the top of the column was a Statue of Apollo, believed to have been brought from Troy. This statue was of course a pagan symbol.

The head of the sun god Apollo was adorned with seven rays. Nails symbolizing the Passion of Christ were driven between the rays. In other words, the statue made references to both the past and the future of Rome.

Forum of Constantine in the Byzantine Era

Throughout the Byzantine period, the Forum of Constantine remained the largest square in the city. With the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Constantinople’s importance reached its peak. The Roman cult would be kept alive by the Byzantine Empire (or Eastern Roman Empire), which was now the legal heir of ancient Rome.

The empire experienced its most glorious years during the reign of Emperor Justinian. However, the statue that witnessed the city’s best years was destroyed in a storm in 1104. A cross was placed here so that the top of the column would not remain empty.

Constantinople, despite its ups and downs, managed to remain the largest and richest city in the world until the Sack of Constantinople in 1204. During the Latin occupation between 1204 and 1261, the city’s most beautiful monuments were plundered.

Crusaders who set out from Europe in the early 1200s attacked Constantinople under the command of the “Doge of Venice” Enrico Dandolo and stole the most beautiful works in the city and took them to Venice, Italy.

In this incident that took place during the 4th Crusade, all of the gold, silver and bronze statues and icons in the city were stolen. Some of the works were washed to the bottom of the Mediterranean in sunken ships, while others were used to decorate historical structures in Venice.

The Crusaders who occupied the city in 1204 established a Latin Empire that would last until 1261. When the Byzantines took back their capital in 1261, the most beautiful churches, palaces and squares of the city were in ruins.

As a result, Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, could not overcome the destruction caused by the Crusades and never returned to its former glory. Magnificent structures such as the Forum of Constantine lost their former beauty.

The Forum of Constantine is now Cemberlitas

The Ottoman Principality, established in Anatolia in the 1300s, conquered all the lands around Constantinople within 150 years. Finally, in 1453, Constantinople fell and the city became the capital of the rising Ottoman Empire.

The Ottomans preserved the city’s main street, the Mese, and the squares on it. The reason why the Column of Constantine is called Cemberlitas (column decorated with circles) is that iron clamps were nailed around the column, which was renovated during the Ottoman period.

The support clamps prevented the column from breaking apart due to earthquakes and ensured its survival to the present day. These support circles, which start from the base of the Column of Cemberlitas and go up to its top, gave their name to both the column and the district over time.

Conclusion

In this article, we talked about the Forum of Constantine, which has an important place in Istanbul’s history. The Forum of Constantine, one of the first structures of the Roman period, and the column in its center are today in the Cemberlitas district of Istanbul Old City.

Finally, in this article, I included the images I produced through ChatGPT. ChatGPT’s visual-producing extension called DALL-E is very useful in animating these historical writings.

I created the first three images in the article through DALL-E. I was able to get these outputs after giving detailed explanations to the artificial intelligence. Of course, when examined carefully, there are many historical errors in these images. On the other hand, they serve to support our imagination.

If you are interested in the history of Istanbul, you can find many articles related to these topics on the blog page of this site. For example, if you are interested in Byzantine structures in Istanbul, you can find my detailed article at this link.

Written by Serhat Engul

The post The Forum of Constantine in Istanbul today appeared first on Istanbul Clues.

The church was built by Anicia Juliana, daughter of Olybrius, a former Western Roman emperor. The church, which was the most magnificent structure of Constantinople in the years it was built, was dedicated to a Christian martyr named Saint Polyeuktos.

History of The Church of St. Polyeuctus

In order to talk about the history of the Church of St. Polyeuctus, it is necessary to take a short journey into the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. Because the church was built as a result of a political conflict between the Roman aristocrats and the future great emperor Justinian.

To tell the story properly, we will need to rewind a bit. We will briefly talk about the 4th and 5th centuries, when the center of power of the Roman Empire shifted to the east. Let’s start our article with the hope that you will enjoy reading it.

1. The New Capital Constantinople

After Constantinople became the new capital, many things changed in the Roman Empire. The most important of these was the Hellenization of the Latin cult in Eastern Rome, but this is beyond our scope as it was a process that would take centuries.

The most rapid change after Emperor Constantine (Constantine), who paved the way for Christianity to spread to the masses in Rome, was the increasing importance of Christianity in Roman administration.

2. Rise of the Christianity in the State

The bishops, whose powers were determined by the decisions taken in the Council of Nicaea, began to overshadow the authority of the Roman emperors. We see that Theodosius I (379-395), who reigned about 50 years after the Emperor Constantine, kneel before Saint Ambrose (Archbishop of Milan) for his sins.

In the period of Leo I (457-474), the tradition of raising the new emperor on the shields of the soldiers had ended. Instead, the Patriarch of Constantinople began crowning the emperors.

Constantine, Theodosius and Leo were the emperors who accelerated Rome’s transition from Paganism to Christianity. For this reason, they were called “Great” by the Church.

However, after moving to the new capital Constantinople, religious beliefs were not the only thing that changed. The rule of choosing Emperors only among Romans ended. The end of this tradition with the crowning of Emperor Zeno was the result of the rise of barbarian soldiers in the Roman army.

3. Rise of Barbarian Soldiers in the Army

For example, General Aspar, who was the “Chief of Staff” at the time, played a major role in the accession of Emperor Leo I to the throne. Soldiers of barbarian origin had now reached the highest levels in the army and were directing policy.

If it had been possible, Aspar would have wanted to ascend to the throne himself. However, at that time, it was still not accepted for barbarians to ascend to the throne. However, this rule would change only a generation later.

An Isaurian general who married the daughter of Emperor Leo changed his name to Zeno. This paved the way for the first emperor of barbarian origin to ascend to the throne.

Zeno, who reigned between 474 and 491, was never accepted by the Roman aristocracy and the people. Therefore, it was expected that the next emperor would be identical with the traditional values ​​of Rome.

In other words, according to the people’s wishes, the next emperor had to be someone who had both an “Orthodox” Christian belief, as in the decisions made by the Council of Nicaea, and also a true “Roman”.

The people demonstrated their will in arenas such as the Hippodrome of Constantinople and shouted to the empress, “Give us an Orthodox emperor, give us a Roman emperor!” (Byzantium: The Early Centuries by John Julius Norwich).

4. Reign of Emperor Anastasius I

After Zeno’s death, the person his wife Empress Ariadne would marry would become the new emperor of Rome. She married the 60-year-old charismatic bureaucrat Anastasius.

In this way, both the people and the senate were pleased. Anastasius, a successful and noble bureaucrat, ruled successfully between 491 and 518.

However, when Emperor Anastasius died, there was no heir to take the throne. Since the empress was no longer alive, the army would have to choose who would ascend to the throne.

In such an environment, the name of Justin, the commander of the palace guards, was put forward. Justin, who ascended to the throne with tens of thousands shouting his name in the Hippodrome, was Roman and Orthodox, but he could not even read and write!

5. Reign of Emperor Justin I

The Roman senate and aristocrats had a reason to complain again. Because the new emperor was a peasant who had emigrated from Thrace in his youth! However, no matter how uneducated he was, Justin was not a simple person.

He had come to Constantinople as an ordinary person, and had managed to rise to the level of commander of the palace guards. He was an excellent soldier and was highly respected by the army.

While the Roman aristocracy in the capital waited for Justin to fail, it became clear how far-sighted the new emperor was. Because while Justin was still a high-ranking officer, he had brought his nephew named “Petrus Sabbatius” from his village in Thrace and ensured that he received an excellent education in Constantinople.

Emperor Justin of course knew that he was not equipped to properly manage state affairs. For this reason, he had his nephew Peter elected as “Consul” and handed over bureaucratic duties to him.

Peter, an excellent statesman, was later made co-emperor with the title of “Caesar” and it was certain that he would be the next ruler. At this time, he changed his name to “Justinianus”.

6. Daughter of Olybrius, Anicia Juliana

Anicia Juliana, whose father Olybrius had briefly served as the Western Roman Emperor, was one of the most established members of the Roman court.

When Anicia’s son “Olybrius the Younger” married the nephew of Emperor Anastasius, she believed that he would be the next emperor after the elder Anastasius.

However, Anastasius had not chosen a successor as “Caesar” before his death. Anicia Juliana was disappointed when Justin, the commander of the palace guard, had hastily ascended to the throne.

Since Justin was not young either, Anicia still believed that someone from her own family could ascend to the throne in the future. However, Anicia’s dreams were dashed when Justin’s young nephew “Petrus” was declared the successor under the name “Justinianus.”

Realizing that she had no claim to the Roman throne, Anicia Juliana decided to show a symbolic reaction. She would spend her family’s great fortune on building a magnificent church and demonstrate the superiority of the Roman aristocracy.

Thus, she set out to build the most beautiful church in Constantinople. It would be named St Polyeuctus Church, after Polyeuktos (his Greek name), one of the early Christian martyrs.

7. Justinian and Theodora’s Church

This move by Anicia Juliana was a clear challenge to Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora. It was known that Anicia hated Theodora as much as Justinian.

Theodora, the daughter of an official working in the Hippodrome, had become famous as a dancer before marrying Justinian. However, immediately after she rose to the palace, she proved that she had a strong character to become empress.

Justinian, who became emperor after the death of his predecessor Justin, declared his wife Theodora as co-ruler with the title of “Augusta”. Thus, they would rule the empire together.

As if that were not enough, they also built a church that rivaled Anicia Juliana’s Church of St. Polyeuctus. And they even chose its name, like Anicia Juliana did, after Christian martyrs.

This new church, dedicated to Sergius and Bacchus, two Roman soldiers martyred for their faith near Syria, was called the Church of Sergius and Bacchus.

This church, which was converted into a mosque during the Ottoman period, is known as the Little Hagia Sophia Mosque due to its resemblance to Hagia Sophia and has survived to this day.

Architecture of the Church of St Polyeuctus

The 6th century, when St Polyeuctus Church was built, marked a major change in Roman architecture. First, the central domed St Polyeuctus Church of Anicia Juliana was built, followed immediately by the octagonal domed Sergius and Bacchus Church of Justinian.

While all Roman churches built since the time of Emperor Constantine had a basilica plan, these two churches were the harbingers of a major change. Basilicas, which were essentially pagan Roman structures and inspired all early churches, were rectangular structures with three naves.

Basilicas, which were used for meetings and courts in Roman history, were converted into churches during the Constantine period. Basilica-plan churches left their mark on the first 200 years of Christianity. However, it was time for a major change.

The first example of this change, St Polyeuctus Church, had a central dome while preserving the three-nave structure. The dome rising above the central nave was placed on the thick walls separating the main space from the side naves. The structure had two half domes extending between the entrance and the apse, as in the Hagia Sophia, which was built later.

On the other hand, the Church of Sergius and Bacchus, built as a response to the arrogance of the aristocracy, brought a new perspective to church architecture with its octagonal dome inside a square structure.

The Church of St. Polyeuctus, built between 524 and 527, and the Church of Sergius and Bacchus, built between 527 and 536, paved the way for a new era. Thanks to the new dome plans developed by the two churches, Hagia Sophia, the most magnificent structure of the Byzantine Empire, was later built.

The thing that did the most damage to the historical heritage of Constantinople was the Sack of Constantinople in 1204. Crusader armies setting out from Europe plundered the capital Constantinople. During this looting, the columns of the Church of St Polyeuctus were also stolen.

The Church of St Polyeuctus, the most richly decorated church of its time, had structural elements decorated with exquisite figures on every inch. Some of the church’s pieces were stolen and taken to Italy, where they are now in the courtyard of St Mark’s Basilica in Venice.

I made the image above with ChatGPT’s image-generating AI engine DALL-E. After giving ChatGPT the information I had about the architecture of the Church of St Polyeuctus, this is the result (it seems to work, although it has its flaws).

Anicia Juliana’s Legacy

The Church of St. Polyeuctus was one of the groundbreaking structures in Eastern Roman architecture. Although centuries have passed since its destruction, it is still remembered as one of the most important Byzantine churches in Istanbul.

The fact that two of the most powerful women in Byzantine history, Empress Theodora and Anicia Juliana, lived in the same century led to the emergence of two important historical structures that enriched the history of Istanbul.

The Church of St. Polyeuctus also inspired the architecture of today’s Hagia Irene Church. Hagia Irene was destroyed during an earthquake in the 8th century and rebuilt with a simple architecture during the reign of the Iconoclast emperors.

Located in the first courtyard of Topkapi Palace today, Hagia Irene is the structure that most resembles the famous St. Polyeuctus Church of the past. For this reason, I have attached a recent photo of Hagia Irene above for reference.

Conclusion

The ruins of the St. Polyeuctus Church are currently located in the Fatih district, very close to the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. As far as I know, the Istanbul Municipality archaeology team is conducting an excavation at the site of the church ruins.

Thanks to these studies, we may have new information about the history and architecture of the St. Polyeuctus Church in the coming years. Of course, I will be updating this article according to new developments.

If you are interested in the history of Istanbul, you can find many articles on this site’s blog page. For example, if you are interested in Byzantine artifacts in Istanbul, you can also read my related article at this address.

The Church of St. Polyeuctus by Serhat Engul

The post History of Church of St Polyeuctus (Istanbul) appeared first on Istanbul Clues.

The church, which formed the core of the monastery, was dedicated to John the Baptist. Monastery of Stoudios, which was converted into a mosque under the name of Imrahor Mosque during the Ottoman period, was destroyed by earthquakes and fires.

In order to explain the history of the Monastery of Stoudios from a broader perspective, I will briefly explain the rise of Christianity in Roman politics. It will be a little long article, but I will have touched on many things about the history of Constantinople.

Polytheism and Emperors in Rome

In ancient Rome, in order to gain political power, it was necessary to win military victories. This was a tradition that began in the Republic period, before the Roman Empire was founded. It would be useful to talk a little about the period of Julius Caesar as an example.

Julius Caesar was one of three consuls that ruled Rome during the First Triumvirate. With his legions, he organized military expeditions to the barbarian tribes in the north. His victories in Gaul and Britain made him invincible.

The soldiers in the Roman legions he ruled for years worshiped him. Fearing that Julius Caesar would bring the end of the Republic, the Roman Senate killed him with an assassination.

Octavius, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, did what the Senate feared. The Roman Empire, the most powerful state of the Antiquity, was established. Octavius became the first emperor of Rome under the name Augustus.

The imperial system has continued successfully for many years. The generals, who were blessed by the legions, seized the administration and caused chaos for some periods. For example, emperors changed frequently during the 50-year period between 235 and 285.

There was a polytheistic pagan belief in the Roman Empire and emperors were declared gods by the senate. The political might of the emperors was supported by a sort of shield of holiness. They didn’t have to get approval from anyone for what they did.

From Paganism to Monotheistic Religion

What triggered the change of this system was the reign of Emperor Constantine. Constantine I, who came to the throne after the Tetrarchy Rule, made major reforms. First of all, he moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople. Then he took strong steps to change the religion of the state.

Constantine abandoned the polytheistic pagan religion, and accelerated the transition to monotheistic religion. By adopting Christianity, he equipped Rome and Constantinople with churches. From this point on, the emperor’s divinity would end and he would have to share his authority with the clergy.

The transition to the new order was not easy in the Roman Empire. The change that began in the reign of Emperor Constantine would be completed in 50 years. By the time of Emperor Theodosius, there were important clergymen in many religious centers of the empire.

The first incident in which clerics overshadowed the authority of the emperors occurred in 393. Emperor Theodosius, who brutally suppressed the uprising in Thessaloniki, killed 7000 people.

The Massacre of Thessalonica, which was against Christian values, was condemned by the clergy. Pious Theodosius, who regretted what he had done, wished forgiveness before Saint Ambrose (Bishop of Milan). This incident was a milestone in Roman history.

An archbishop was appointed to each of the religious centers of the empire, Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria (this system is called Pentharcy). The influence of these clergy in the administration increased day by day.

Thus, the coronation was no longer in the form of legions carrying emperors on their shields. Instead, bishops would bless the emperors in the name of God (representative image can be seen above).

Eastern Roman Emperor Leo I was the first ruler to be crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople. From that incident onwards, the emperors had to share their authority with the clergy. Throughout the Middle Ages, the struggle for power between emperors and clergy never ended.

The Most Important Monastery of Istanbul

The main reason I made such a long introduction was to tell you how Christianity got stronger over time in the Roman Empire. In this process, The Church gained the power to give way to state policies.

One of the most influential religious institutions of the Eastern Roman Empire was the Stoudios Monastery. The abbot of the monastery had the greatest authority after the Patriarch of Constantinople.

If we consider that the most powerful clergymen in the Middle Ages were “The Pope” in Rome and “The Patriarch” in Constantinople, we would understand the political power of the Stoudios Monastery.

Among the 80 monasteries in Constantinople, Stoudios Monastery was ranked first. The church, dedicated to John the Baptist, is also referred to as “Monastery of Saint John the Forerunner” in some sources.

History of Stoudios Monastery

The Stoudios Monastery dates back to the fifth century and is the oldest surviving religious structure from Constantinople, albeit in disrepair.

It was built in 462 by Flavius Studius, the Eastern Roman consul. Studius, a wealthy statesman, built the church on his land. Devoted to St John the Baptist, the church also had his relics.

The Stoudios Monastery was located somewhere between the Forum of Arcadius and the Golden Gate. The Golden Gate, the most important gate opening to the city from the of Theodosian Walls, was the monumental gate used by the emperors.

A monastery was added next to the church built by Flavius Studios. The monastery, where a thousand monks lived, had self-sufficient facilities. Farming was carried out in the monastery garden so that enough food was provided to the monastery.

The monastery, which trained prominent clergymen, became an important political power within the Byzantine Empire over time. The monastery had peaked its power under the leadership of Theodore the Studite. He was the leader of those who opposed Byzantine iconoclasm.

In the Byzantine Empire, the emperors or members of the dynasty who were deposed were forced to live the monk life. Sometimes the emperors who were overthrown by their rivals took refuge in monasteries with their own consent to protect their lives. Stoudios Monastery shielded emperors such as Michael V Kalaphates, Isaac I Komnenos, and Michael VII Doukas.

Like many buildings in Constantinople, the Stoudios Monastery suffered great damage during the Fourth Crusade (aka Sack of Constantinople). The Latins, who plundered the city, stole the relics of John the Baptist, the church’s most important sacred relic.

After this incident, it took 57 years for the Byzantines to recapture Constantinople. When the Byzantines finally took back their capital in 1261, they restored the Studios Monastery in 1290.

Architecture of Stoudios Monastery

Monastery of Stoudios was built in early Christianity. Like all early Roman-Byzantine churches, it was inspired by the Basilica plan. However, it was possible to see the traces of Greco-Roman architecture, as it was built in an era where Ancient Art was still present.

Columns supporting the church, a three-nave basilica, had majestic column capitals in the Corinthian order. These column heads, decorated with very elegant motifs, are still standing despite all earthquakes and fires that damage the structure.

Imrahor Mosque in the Ottoman Period

The monastery was converted into a mosque during the reign of the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II. The task of turning the monastery into a mosque was given to Imrahor Ilyas Bey.

It was opened to worship after the renovations in 1486. The title “Imrahor”, which means the person responsible for the Sultan’s stables, remained the name of the mosque in the local language.

The fame of the Stoudios Monastery also attracted the attention of the Ottomans. They built a Tekke (Muslim Monastery) next to the mosque and made those who dedicate their lives to worship live here.

The Imrahor Mosque was damaged by earthquakes and fires over time. An earthquake in 1766 weakened the foundations of the building. Due to the fire in 1782, the columns on the right side of the building were destroyed. With the roof collapsing in 1908, it became completely unusable.

The Stoudios Monastery, which has a history of approximately 1600 years, is still known worldwide. The walls surrounding the building are still standing. However, the building is closed to visitors for security reasons.

Conclusion

According to the new news coming in 2022, the restoration of the Imrahor Mosque (former Studios Monastery) has started. It is great news that such an important structure in Istanbul’s history will be rebuilt!

I reorganize the pages on this site several times a year and try to keep it as up-to-date as possible. I will also share with you the new information I have obtained about the restoration work carried out at the Studios Monastery (also known as Imrahor Mosque).

If you are interested in the history of Istanbul, you can find many articles related to these subjects on the blog page of this site. For example, if you are interested in Byzantine structures in Istanbul, you can find the related article from here.

Stoudios Monastery (Imrahor Mosque) by Serhat Engul

The post Stoudios Monastery (now Imrahor Mosque in Istanbul) appeared first on Istanbul Clues.

I used artificial intelligence to visualize the summary of the history of Istanbul. In the past, it was very difficult to match images to the history articles I wrote. However, thanks to Chatgpt’s new visual engine DALLE, results like the ones below can be obtained.

Short History of Istanbul with Facts

Istanbul is one of the most important tourist destinations in the world today. Buildings such as the Hippodrome, Hagia Sophia, Topkapi Palace, Blue Mosque and Galata Tower are the most popular tourist attractions in the city. However, each of these structures was built in a different period of the city.

Since there are many different layers in the history of Istanbul, it can be difficult to distinguish the cultural background of the buildings. For example, the Hippodrome was built in the Roman period, the Hagia Sophia in the Byzantine period, and the Topkapi Palace in the Ottoman period.

However, the Greek, Roman and Turkish cultures that are at the heart of Istanbul are not independent from each other. It is a fact that the buildings in the city are affected by each other’s architectural features. Now, I would like to explain the facts about the history of Istanbul in its simplest form, so that these things make a better sense.

The history of Istanbul started as an Ancient Greek city and its name was Byzantium. Known as Constantinople during the Roman and Byzantine periods, the city eventually became Istanbul. Now I want to tell you briefly about the story of these three cities.

1. Ancient Greek Byzantium

In order talk about the foundation of Istanbul as an Ancient Greek city-state with the name of Byzantium (or Byzantion), we need to go back to 660 BC. Our story begins when a king named Byzas decided to emigrate from the city of Megara in Greece and seek the advice of an oracle at Temple Apollo, like anybody did those days.

The oracle advised him to head to the East and build his city “opposite the City of the Blind”. Of course, neither Byzas nor his company understood anything at all. While following the mysterious directions of the oracle, they would find the most suitable place themselves.

Arrival To The Bosphorus

As a result of their journey from Greece to the East, they arrived at a fortified point known as Sarayburnu (Seraglio Point) today. This is where the Historical Peninsula of Istanbul meets the Bosphorus in the East.

While Byzas and his staff were enjoying the beautiful scenery of the Bosphorus on this hill, they spotted a settlement on the Asian side of the Bosphorus, which is known as Kadikoy today. Those people were nobody else but the Greek colony that emigrated before them.

City Of The Blind: Chalcedon

Byzas and his staff thought Chalcedons were the blind people mentioned by the oracle, as they didn’t see this great location and chose Asian side. Therefore, Byzas decided to settle opposite to Chalcedon. The city began to be named as Byzantium after its founder Byzas.

2. The Roman Constantinople

In the 4th century, a long period of civil war occurred in Rome. Constantine, one of the four emperors under Tetrarchy, managed to eliminate all his rivals and become the sole ruler.

According to Constantine, the capital, Rome, was now far from its former strategic importance. For this reason, Emperor Constantine, in search of a new capital, chose Byzantium, an old Greek site.

Constantinople, the new Roman capital, began to be built on seven hills. The name of the city was dedicated to its new founder. The city walls were enlarged and equipped with Roman buildings.

Foundation of Constantinople

The foundation of Constantinople took 6 years. The Hippodrome, Forum of Constantine, Great Palace, and the Church of the Holy Apostles were the first monumental Roman buildings of the city.

Completed after 6 years of construction, New Rome was introduced to the public with a ceremony by Emperor Constantine. Roman senators flocked to the city. The city population increased rapidly and became the most important city of late antiquity.

Division of Roman Empire

However, after Constantine’s death, Rome entered a period of great turmoil. Emperor Valens died on the battlefield and a government crisis ensued. Ascended to the throne in such a crisis, Theodosius I put Rome back on track.

During the Theodosius I period, Constantinople gained importance as the Roman capital. However, due to the emperor’s untimely death, Roman Empire was divided in two. Thus, while Rome became the capital of the Western Empire, Constantinople officially became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.

3. The Byzantine Constantinople

In this period of history, Western Rome lost its strategic importance and was dragged into chaos by barbarian attacks. Eastern Rome, on the contrary, was on the rise. The Byzantine Empire and its capital, Constantinople, was at the very center of Eastern Mediterranean trade and promised a prosperous future.

The Western Roman Empire fell in 476, only 81 years after the division, due to the barbarian invasion and the old capital Rome was seized by the Goths.

Eastern Roman Empire aka Byzantine Empire

The Eastern Rome had lost its sister and it was left alone on the stage of history. The kings of the Eastern Roman Empire conceived themselves as Cesar, while the common folks identified themselves as Romans.

The reason why this civilization is known in modern history as Byzantine Empire is because the modern day historians derived it from the city’s first name “Byzantium”.

Byzantium Under Justinian’s Rule

Byzantine Empire had a Ancient Greek culture and Roman administrative organization. These two powerful codes, one cultural and the other administrative, had been the driving force of Byzantium for centuries. The peak point of the Empire was the era of the Emperor Justinian who built Hagia Sophia.

Thanks to the great conquests of Justinian in the West, The Byzantine Empire’s borders almost reached the level of the ancient Roman Empire. However, his successors were unable to protect these borders due to various reasons.

After Justinian, the empire entered into a centuries-long struggle in the east, first with the Persians and then with the Arabs. On the western front, she fought first the Goths and then the Bulgarians.

The Bubonic Plague and The Great Schism

However, epidemics and theological conflicts consumed Byzantium more than wars. The bubonic plague had halved the population of Constantinople, the world’s most populous city at that time.

While the Orthodox and Monophysite strife was already eating away at the empire, the Western and Eastern churches were separated from each other in the Great Schism (1054), as a result of the ongoing conflicts with Rome.

Fourth Crusade and Sack of Constantinople

The Byzantine Empire has encountered many enemies throughout its millennium history. Among them were Attila the Hun, Avars, Persians, Arabs and Bulgarians. However, the struggle with the Turks marked the last period of Byzantium. Seljuk Turks from Asia won the Battle of Manzikert (1071) and entered Anatolia, the heart of Byzantium.

The Seljuk Empire’s capture of Asia Minor triggered the crusades. Previously, these campaigns enabled Byzantium to reclaim its lost lands. The Byzantines recaptured most of Anatolia from the Turks. However, the Fourth Crusade targeted Constantinople, the heart of the Byzantine Empire. During the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, the 1000-year-old Roman capital was destroyed.

Constantinople, the most populous and prosperous city in the world during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages, had lost everything. Although the Byzantines took the city back from the invaders, it was not possible to return to the old days.

The Fall of Constantinople

The Byzantine Empire had entered a period of decline. The Turkish principalities that emerged after the collapse of the Seljuk Turks captured Byzantium piece by piece. The most powerful of these was the Ottoman chiefdom.

The Ottoman State grew into an empire and besieged Constantinople from all sides. Now the fall of Constantinople was only a matter of time. As a result, on May 29, 1453, Istanbul was conquered by the Ottomans.

4. The Ottoman Konstantiniyye

Constantinople was a gem that many civilizations wanted to seize for centuries. Sultan Mehmed II declared this place as the capital of the Ottoman Empire under the name of Konstantiniyye.

However, the buildings in the ancient Byzantine capital were not in good condition. The main reason for this was the looting and destruction that took place during the 57-year Sack of Constantinople (1204-1261). Many of the monumental buildings were in ruins during the decline of Byzantium.

Hagia Sophia: From a Church to a Mosque

The Sultan ordered the immediate restoration of Hagia Sophia and its conversion to a mosque. Then, he began the construction of a palace for himself. This newly built palace was Topkapi Palace, which is a museum today.

The hill on which Topkapi Palace was built was also the place where the history of Istanbul began. That was the hill where Byzas founded the Ancient Greek site Byzantium.

The Rise of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire enjoyed a great period of rise from 1453 to 1700, so much so that, the Empire’s borders extended to three continents and she became the biggest and the most powerful state of her time.

The name of the city wasn’t changed immediately. It was called Konstantiniyye (meaning Constantinople) for ages. It should be noted that the Ottomans also used names such as Dersaadet (City of Happiness) or Payitaht (Royal City) to describe the city.

From Stanpoli to Istanbul

Although the origin of the name Istanbul is still controversial, the strongest claim is that it’s from the Ancient Greek period. In ancient Byzantium, the name of the city center was Stanpoli. This name is believed to have evolved and became Istanbul.

5. The Modern Istanbul

Immediately after the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, the Ottoman Empire entered a process of decline that would last for over two centuries.

Some Ottoman rulers made reforms to reverse the decline. Modernization and westernization efforts in the Ottoman Empire peaked especially in the 19th century. This period marked the history of Istanbul. Because there was a great change in architecture.

Dolmabahce Palace and Beylerbeyi Palace were built in this period reflect architectural styles such as Neo-Classical and Baroque. Architectural change was followed by military reforms. However, all these efforts could not stop the economic collapse of the empire.

The Fall of Ottoman Empire

Since the Ottoman Empire fell back in terms of technology, she lost more people and more equities to preserve her lands. In 19th century, the Empire entered a process of fall in terms of economy and World War I (1914-1918) consumed the already exhausted Empire completely.

War of Independence

During the First World War, the Ottoman Empire allied with the German and Austro-Hungarian empires and was defeated. After WWI, all lands were occupied by allied forces. In such an environment, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk shined as a leader. Ataturk, who had showed his military genius in the Battle of Gallipoli in 1915, started the war of independence.

The Foundation of Modern Turkey

As a result of the struggle of the four-year period between 1919 and 1923, Anatolia was freed from the invaders and the Republic of Turkey was founded. Turkey Grand National Assembly was established in Ankara during the war.

For this reason, Ankara became capital city. Turkey declared its independence in 1923 as a secular and democratic republic. Istanbul was no longer the capital, but still the most important city of Modern Turkey.

Conclusion

In this article, I tried to convey facts about the history of Istanbul, one of the most important historical cities of the world. Of course, there are many aspects of the story that are missing. However, it is difficult to fit the story of a city with such a deep history in a single article.

If you want to go deeper into the history of Istanbul, you can read the Byzantine Constantinople article, starting from the Roman period. After the Roman and Byzantine periods, you can find the rest of the story in the article called Ottoman Istanbul.

I can suggest two more articles that approach both the Roman (and Byzantine) and Ottoman periods of Istanbul from different perspectives. The first of these is the Byzantine churches in Istanbul and the other is the Ottoman mosques in Istanbul.

History of Istanbul with Facts by Serhat Engul

The post Summary of Istanbul History (With Descriptive Images) appeared first on Istanbul Clues.

Some of these monuments have disappeared entirely, such as the Church of the Holy Apostles. Others survive only as ruins. But many still stand today, either as mosques, museums, or active places of worship, continuing to shape the city’s landscape more than a thousand years after they were built.

To understand these churches, it is important to begin with their origins.

The earliest Christian churches of Constantinople were inspired by the Roman basilica — a rectangular structure originally used for public gatherings rather than religious ceremonies. Following the Edict of Milan in 313, when Christianity was legalized by Emperor Constantine, these basilicas were gradually transformed into spaces of worship.

Over time, this architectural tradition evolved.

From the vast domed spaces of the 6th century to the more refined and intimate structures of the Middle and Late Byzantine periods, each church reflects a different phase in the development of the city. Together, they form a layered narrative of how Constantinople adapted, expanded, and redefined itself across centuries.

This guide brings together 15 of the most important Byzantine churches in Istanbul — some monumental, some hidden, but each offering a distinct perspective on the city’s past.

Byzantine Churches in Istanbul (2026)

Many Byzantine churches of Constantinople still survive in present-day Istanbul, although their condition and function vary significantly.

Some, such as the Stoudios Monastery and the Church of St. Polyeuktos, have been reduced to partial remains and are not accessible as complete structures. Others, like the Church of the Holy Apostles, have been entirely lost.

At the same time, a large number of churches continue to exist within the urban fabric of the city.

Some function as mosques, preserving their architectural form while serving a new role. Others operate as museums or mixed-use spaces, where Byzantine mosaics and frescoes can still be observed. A few, such as the Church of St Mary of the Mongols, have remained in continuous use as churches.

The following sections present these monuments individually, offering a clear and structured overview of their history, architecture, and present-day condition.

1. Church of the Holy Apostles

When Constantine chose Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire, he was not simply building a city — he was shaping a new identity. Alongside monuments like the Hippodrome and the Great Palace, the Church of the Holy Apostles became one of the key symbols of Constantinople’s Christian character.

Originally built in the 4th century and later rebuilt by Emperor Justinian after the Nika Revolt of 532, the church was described as one of the most magnificent structures of its time. Contemporary sources mention a vast domed basilica, its roof covered with bronze plates that shimmered like gold, and an interior lined with richly colored marble rising toward the ceiling.

More importantly, this was not just a church.

It was the imperial mausoleum of Byzantium.

For centuries, emperors such as Constantine and Justinian were buried here, making it one of the most sacred and politically significant sites in the city. While Hagia Sophia represented the spiritual heart of Constantinople, the Church of the Holy Apostles embodied the continuity and prestige of the imperial dynasty.

Architecturally, the church also left a lasting legacy. Its cross-shaped plan crowned with multiple domes later inspired major buildings in the Mediterranean world, most notably St. Mark’s Basilica in Venice.

However, the fate of the church reflects the turbulent history of the city itself.

During the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the church was heavily looted and damaged. Imperial tombs were opened, and their contents were plundered — an event frequently mentioned in both historical sources and modern discussions about the period.

By the time the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453, the structure was already in a state of decline. Although it was briefly assigned to the Orthodox Patriarchate, its deteriorated condition led to its abandonment. In 1461, the church was demolished, and the Fatih Mosque was built directly on its foundations.

Today, nothing of the original structure survives.

Yet the location itself remains deeply significant. Standing on one of the highest hills of the Historic Peninsula, the site continues to dominate the surrounding landscape — just as it did in Byzantine times.

2. Hagia Eirene

Hagia Eirene is one of the oldest surviving churches in Constantinople and holds a unique place among the city’s Byzantine monuments. Long before Hagia Sophia was built, it served as the main church of the city and hosted important events such as the Second Ecumenical Council in 381.

The building we see today largely dates back to the 8th century. Like many structures in the city, it was damaged during the Nika Revolt and later rebuilt by Emperor Justinian. However, the most defining reconstruction came after an earthquake in 740, during the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm — a time when religious images were officially banned.

This historical moment shaped the character of Hagia Eirene in a very visible way.

Unlike other churches in Istanbul, its interior contains no figural mosaics. Instead, a single large cross dominates the apse — a rare and powerful example of iconoclastic art that has survived almost untouched.

Another feature that sets Hagia Eirene apart is its continuity.

After the Ottoman conquest in 1453, the church was not converted into a mosque. Because it stood within the outer courtyard of Topkapı Palace, it was repurposed as an imperial arsenal rather than a place of worship. This unusual history allowed the building to preserve its original architectural form with very little alteration.

Today, Hagia Eirene stands quietly in the first courtyard of Topkapı Palace. Compared to the crowds of nearby Hagia Sophia, it offers a much more subdued and contemplative atmosphere. Its vast, empty interior and remarkable acoustics have also made it a preferred venue for classical music concerts in recent years.

3. Stoudios Monastery

Stoudios Monastery is the oldest surviving church structure in Istanbul, dating back to the 5th century. Built in 462 near the Golden Gate — the ceremonial entrance of Constantinople — it represents one of the earliest examples of a basilica-type church in the city.

Dedicated to John the Baptist, the monastery soon became far more than a religious complex. It evolved into the most influential monastic center in Constantinople. The monks of Stoudios played a decisive role in shaping Orthodox religious life, and their authority often extended beyond theology into imperial politics.

During the Iconoclast period, the monastery became one of the strongest centers of opposition to the ban on religious images. Its leaders defended the use of icons at a time when this position carried significant risk, reinforcing the monastery’s reputation as a place of intellectual and spiritual resistance.

Stoudios was also known for a remarkable tradition.

The monks belonging to the Akoimetoi (the “Sleepless Ones”) maintained continuous prayer by rotating in shifts, ensuring that worship never stopped — day or night. This practice gave the monastery a unique rhythm that distinguished it from other religious institutions in the city.

Following the Ottoman conquest, the complex was converted into a mosque in 1486 and became known as Imrahor Mosque. Over time, earthquakes and fires caused severe damage. The roof collapsed in the early 20th century, leaving the structure largely abandoned.

Today, only parts of its walls and architectural elements remain standing. Although the site has long been closed to visitors, its historical significance continues to attract attention. As of 2026, the Istanbul Governor’s Office announced plans for a comprehensive restoration, with the long-term goal of reopening the monument to the public.

Even in its current state, Stoudios Monastery remains one of the most historically significant — and often overlooked — Byzantine sites in Istanbul.

4. Church of St. Polyeuktos

The Church of St. Polyeuktos was once one of the most ambitious churches ever built in Constantinople, although today only fragments of its structure remain.

The ruins, discovered during excavations in the 1960s near the Valens Aqueduct, belong to a church commissioned in the early 6th century by Anicia Juliana — a member of one of the most prestigious Roman aristocratic families.

This was not an ordinary act of patronage.

Juliana’s background placed her within the imperial lineage, and the construction of this church is often interpreted as a statement of status at a time of political transition. When the throne passed to Justin I and later to Justinian — figures of more modest origin — Juliana responded not through politics, but through architecture.

The result was a church that, for a brief moment, stood among the most monumental structures in the city.

Historical sources suggest that the building was richly decorated with carved marble, intricate reliefs, and architectural elements inspired by earlier imperial traditions. Some scholars believe that its scale and ornamentation influenced later Byzantine architecture, including the great constructions of Justinian’s reign.

The church did not survive intact.

During the Fourth Crusade in 1204, it was heavily damaged and stripped of many of its decorative elements. Several of its sculptural fragments are believed to have been transported to Western Europe, contributing to the dispersal of Byzantine art beyond the city.

Today, the site in Saraçhane has taken on a new life.

Recent excavation and restoration efforts have transformed the area into an open-air archaeological space, making the remains more accessible and easier to understand within their urban context. Although only partial ruins are visible, they offer a glimpse into a period when architectural patronage was closely tied to imperial ambition.

5. Church of Sergius and Bacchus

Little Hagia Sophia Mosque, originally known as the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, is one of the earliest imperial churches built during the reign of Emperor Justinian in the 6th century.

Constructed shortly after Justinian came to power, the church reflects a moment of transition in Byzantine architecture. While earlier monumental churches followed the traditional basilica plan, this building introduced a more experimental design — a centralized space formed by an octagonal core beneath a dome.

This architectural approach marked an important shift. Some historians interpret this shift as part of a broader architectural response to earlier ambitious projects in the city, such as the Church of St. Polyeuktos, where elite patronage had already pushed the boundaries of scale and decoration.

Rather than repeating established forms, Justinian’s architects explored new spatial concepts that would later culminate in the construction of Hagia Sophia. In this sense, the Church of Sergius and Bacchus can be understood as part of the developmental phase that preceded one of the most iconic buildings of the Byzantine world.

The interior preserves several original features from this early period. Marble columns, finely carved capitals, and inscriptions in Greek still reflect the artistic language of the Justinianic era. These elements offer a more intimate perspective on Byzantine design, allowing visitors to observe details that are often difficult to appreciate in larger monuments.

After the Ottoman conquest, the church was converted into a mosque and became known as the Little Hagia Sophia. This transformation ensured the survival of the structure while integrating it into the religious life of the city.

Today, the building stands slightly removed from the main tourist flow of Sultanahmet. Its quieter setting and manageable scale make it one of the most accessible places to understand early Byzantine architecture within its original urban context.

6. Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia stands as the most influential monument of Byzantine Constantinople and one of the defining buildings in the history of architecture.

The structure seen today is the third church built on this site. The first two, constructed during the 4th and 5th centuries, were both destroyed during periods of political unrest, most notably the Nika Revolt of 532. In the aftermath of this uprising, Emperor Justinian commissioned an entirely new building — one that would surpass anything previously constructed in the ancient world.

Completed in 537 by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, Hagia Sophia introduced a revolutionary architectural concept. Its massive dome, seemingly suspended above a vast interior, redefined the relationship between space, light, and structure. For nearly nine centuries, it remained the largest church in the world and served as the ceremonial and spiritual center of the Byzantine Empire.

This was more than a place of worship.

It was the architectural expression of imperial power.

Following the Ottoman conquest in 1453, the building was converted into a mosque, a transformation that ensured its preservation while adding new layers to its identity. In the 20th century, it functioned as a museum, before being reconverted into a mosque in 2020.

Today, the visitor experience has changed significantly.

Access for foreign visitors is now organized through the upper galleries, while the ground level is reserved for worship. This arrangement allows visitors to observe the structure from an elevated perspective, where many of the surviving Byzantine mosaics — including imperial portraits and religious compositions — are still visible.

Despite these changes, Hagia Sophia remains a place where multiple historical layers coexist. Its architecture, decoration, and ongoing function continue to reflect the complex continuity of the city itself.

7. Constantine Lips Monastery

Fenari Isa Mosque, originally known as the Constantine Lips Monastery, represents a different phase in Byzantine architecture — one that moves away from monumental imperial churches toward more intimate and structured religious spaces.

The original church was built in 907 by Constantine Lips, a high-ranking admiral during the reign of Emperor Leo VI. Unlike earlier basilicas, this building followed a cross-in-square plan, a layout that became characteristic of Middle Byzantine architecture. Its relatively compact form, multiple domes, and enclosed spatial organization reflect a shift in both architectural taste and religious practice.

This was no longer architecture designed for large imperial gatherings.

It was a space shaped for smaller, more controlled communities.

Inside, the atmosphere differed significantly from earlier churches such as Hagia Sophia. Instead of expansive, light-filled interiors, the structure emphasized a more enclosed and subdued environment. The use of brick piers rather than large marble columns created broader wall surfaces, which were once intended for decorative programs such as frescoes or mosaics.

The complex evolved further in the 13th century.

During the Palaiologan period, a second church was added to the south by Empress Theodora, turning the site into a dynastic burial place. This addition created a layered structure where two different phases of Byzantine architecture coexist within a single complex.

After the Ottoman conquest, the building was converted into a mosque and became known as the Fenari Isa Mosque. Today, it remains an active place of worship, preserving both its architectural integrity and its historical significance.

8. Monastery of Myrelaion

Bodrum Mosque, originally known as the Monastery of Myrelaion, was built in the early 10th century by Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos as part of a private palace complex and family burial site.

Unlike the monumental churches of earlier centuries, Myrelaion reflects a more personal form of imperial patronage. Romanos, who rose from a military background to become emperor, commissioned this complex as a statement of legitimacy — establishing a new dynastic center within the city.

His rise to power was closely tied to the imperial court. The position of the Lekapenos family was firmly secured when his daughter Helena married Emperor Constantine VII, linking the dynasty directly to the ruling Macedonian line. This background explains why the complex was conceived not only as a residence, but also as a carefully planned dynastic burial site.

The architecture follows the cross-in-square plan that became typical of the Middle Byzantine period. Compared to earlier structures, the building is more compact, yet carefully proportioned. A single dome rises above the central space, creating a balanced and clearly defined interior, while the use of brick construction gives the structure a distinct visual character.

One of the most unusual aspects of the site lies beneath the church.

The building was constructed on top of a large circular structure dating back to Late Antiquity. This earlier rotunda was transformed into a cistern by filling its interior with approximately eighty columns, creating a massive substructure that supported the church above. This layered design gives Myrelaion a unique architectural identity within the city.

For a period, members of the Lekapenos family were buried here, reinforcing the site’s role as a dynastic monument. However, like many political stories in Byzantium, the rise of the family was followed by a rapid decline.

After the Ottoman conquest, the church was converted into a mosque and became known as the Bodrum Mosque — a name that refers to the large substructure beneath it. Today, it remains an active place of worship, standing quietly within one of the busiest commercial districts of the Historic Peninsula.

9. Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes

Eski Imaret Mosque, originally known as the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes, represents the architectural and political transformation of Byzantium during the Komnenian period.

Built in the late 11th century by Anna Dalassene — the mother of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos — the monastery reflects a time when power in the empire was increasingly shaped by influential families rather than traditional aristocratic elites of Constantinople.

The name Pantepoptes, meaning “the All-Seeing,” is closely tied to the building’s location.

Situated on one of the hills overlooking the Golden Horn, the monastery commands a wide view of the surrounding landscape. This elevated position not only defined its symbolic meaning but also gave it a strategic advantage during times of conflict.

Architecturally, the church follows the Middle Byzantine tradition seen in structures such as Lips and Myrelaion. Its scale is modest, and its design emphasizes proportion and structural clarity rather than monumental display. The refined brickwork on the exterior remains one of the most distinctive features of the building.

The monastery is also associated with a dramatic moment in the city’s history.

During the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Emperor Alexios V Doukas is believed to have used this location as a command point to observe the movements of the Crusader fleet in the Golden Horn. From here, the final stages of the city’s defense unfolded.

After the Ottoman conquest, the building was converted into a mosque and became known as the Eski Imaret Mosque — a name that refers to its temporary use as a public kitchen in the early Ottoman period.

Today, the structure stands within the historic Zeyrek district, offering not only architectural insight but also a sense of the city’s layered urban fabric.

10. Church of Hagia Theodosia

Gül Mosque, originally dedicated to Saint Theodosia, is one of the most atmospheric surviving Byzantine churches in Istanbul, located near the Golden Horn in the Ayakapı district.

Although its exact construction date is uncertain, the building is generally attributed to the late 11th century, during a period when Byzantine architecture had reached a more refined and balanced form. Its tall drum and domed structure continue to define the surrounding neighborhood, preserving the silhouette of a medieval church within the modern city.

The church was dedicated to Saint Theodosia, a figure closely associated with the Iconoclast period.

According to Byzantine tradition, she was martyred in the 8th century for resisting the removal of sacred images, becoming a symbol of devotion during one of the most turbulent theological conflicts in the empire. Over time, the church dedicated to her became an important place of veneration.

The building’s later name — Gül Mosque — is linked to a well-known tradition.

It is said that when Ottoman soldiers entered the city in 1453, the church was decorated with roses for the feast day of Saint Theodosia. This detail, whether historical or symbolic, has remained part of the building’s identity and continues to shape how it is remembered today.

Architecturally, the structure reflects the Middle Byzantine style, with its cross-in-square plan and solid brick construction. Unlike some of the more monumental churches, its character lies in its proportions and presence within the urban fabric rather than in scale.

After the Ottoman conquest, the building was converted into a mosque and has remained in continuous use ever since. Today, it stands slightly off the main tourist routes, offering a quieter and more reflective encounter with the Byzantine past.

11. Monastery of Christ Pantokrator

Zeyrek Mosque, originally the Monastery of Christ Pantokrator, was one of the largest and most important religious complexes of late Byzantine Constantinople.

Built in the early 12th century during the reign of Emperor John II Komnenos and Empress Irene, the complex reflects a shift in imperial patronage. Rather than concentrating power around the traditional ceremonial center near Hagia Sophia, the Komnenian dynasty established new monumental foundations across the city.

Pantokrator was one of the most significant of these.

The complex consisted of three interconnected churches: one dedicated to Christ Pantokrator, another to the Virgin Mary, and a central chapel that served as the dynastic burial space. This multi-part structure gives the building its distinctive scale and asymmetrical appearance.

More than a monastery, it functioned as a major institutional center.

Historical sources describe associated facilities including a hospital, charitable services, and accommodation for clergy, making it one of the most advanced religious foundations of its time. Through these functions, the complex became both a spiritual and social hub within the city.

Architecturally, the structure represents the mature phase of Middle Byzantine design. Its layered domes, balanced proportions, and refined brickwork reflect a period when Byzantine architecture had moved beyond earlier experimentation into a more controlled and cohesive style.

The complex also became the burial place of members of the Komnenos dynasty and later Byzantine rulers, reinforcing its role as a center of imperial memory during the final centuries of the empire.

Following the Ottoman conquest, the building was converted into a mosque and became known as the Zeyrek Mosque. Today, it remains one of the most prominent surviving Byzantine monuments in Istanbul, standing on a hill overlooking the Golden Horn.

12. Theotokos Kyriotissa

Kalenderhane Mosque is one of the most complex and layered Byzantine structures in Istanbul, reflecting nearly a millennium of architectural transformation.

Rather than being the product of a single period, the building incorporates elements from multiple phases of the city’s history. Archaeological findings indicate that the site was originally occupied by a Roman structure, followed by successive churches built and modified between the 7th and 12th centuries.

The present form of the building largely dates to the late 12th century, during the Komnenian period, when earlier components were integrated into a unified structure. As a result, different architectural elements — including the apse, side spaces, and later additions — reflect distinct moments in Byzantine construction.

This layered composition gives the building a unique character.

It is not a single architectural statement, but a sequence of adaptations over time.

One of the most remarkable chapters in its history occurred during the Latin occupation of Constantinople (1204–1261). During this period, the church was used by Franciscan monks, and parts of the structure were decorated with frescoes depicting scenes from the life of Saint Francis of Assisi — a rare example of Western religious imagery within a Byzantine setting.

Following the Ottoman conquest, the building was converted into a mosque and became known as the Kalenderhane Mosque. The name reflects its later association with dervish communities, adding yet another layer to its historical identity.

Today, the structure stands near the Valens Aqueduct, preserving traces of different civilizations within a single architectural framework.

13. Church of Panagia Mouchliotissa

The Church of St Mary of the Mongols, also known as Panagia Mouchliotissa, is one of the most unique surviving Byzantine churches in Istanbul.

Built in the late 13th century during the final phase of the Byzantine Empire, the church is associated with Maria Palaiologina, a member of the imperial family whose life reflects the broader diplomatic networks of Constantinople. After being married into the Mongol ruling elite as part of a political alliance, she later returned to the city and established this monastic foundation, where she spent her final years.

Architecturally, the building represents the refined style of the Palaiologan period. Its compact form, domed interior, and carefully articulated brick construction reflect a phase in which Byzantine architecture emphasized balance and proportion over monumentality.

What distinguishes this church, however, is not its scale or decoration.

It is its continuity.

Unlike most Byzantine churches within the city, this building was never converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest. According to tradition, an imperial decree granted protection to the church, allowing it to remain in continuous use by the Orthodox community.

This uninterrupted function makes it the only surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul that has preserved its original religious role from the Byzantine period to the present day.

Located on the slopes of the Fener district, the church stands slightly apart from the main urban flow, preserving a quieter and more enclosed atmosphere within its surrounding walls.

14. Pammakaristos Church

Fethiye Mosque, originally known as the Church of the Theotokos Pammakaristos, was one of the most important religious institutions of late Byzantine Constantinople.

Built between the 11th and 12th centuries and later expanded during the Palaiologan period, the complex reflects the final phase of Byzantine architectural and artistic development. Its elevated position overlooking the Golden Horn placed it within one of the prominent religious districts of the later capital.

The church gained particular importance after the Ottoman conquest.

For more than a century, it served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, making it the spiritual center of the Orthodox world during a critical transitional period. This role added a new layer of significance to a building that was already associated with imperial patronage.

Architecturally, the structure combines elements of both Middle and Late Byzantine design. The main church and the southern funerary chapel — known as the parekklesion — form a unified composition, reflecting the more refined and expressive style of the Palaiologan Renaissance.

This chapel once contained some of the finest Byzantine mosaics in Istanbul, representing the artistic revival of the empire’s final centuries.

However, the current visitor experience is limited.

While the main structure functions today as an active mosque, the parekklesion — which houses these mosaics — has been closed for restoration in recent years. As of early 2026, access to this section is still not available.

Even so, the building remains an important reference point for understanding the religious and artistic landscape of late Byzantine Constantinople.

15. Chora Church

Kariye Mosque, known in Byzantine times as the Church of the Holy Saviour in Chora, preserves one of the most remarkable artistic ensembles of the Byzantine world.

Originally founded outside the early city walls of Constantinople, the monastery later became enclosed within the expanded fortifications built under Theodosius II. Its name, Chora, meaning “in the countryside” or “outside the city,” reflects this earlier setting — a reminder of the landscape that once surrounded the site.

The church reached its artistic peak in the early 14th century.

Under the patronage of Theodore Metochites, a scholar and high-ranking statesman, the building was transformed into a masterpiece of the Palaiologan Renaissance. The interior was decorated with mosaics and frescoes of exceptional narrative complexity, depicting scenes from the lives of Christ and the Virgin Mary with a level of detail and expression rarely matched in Byzantine art.

Unlike the monumental scale of Hagia Sophia, Chora offers a more intimate experience.

Its mosaics unfold as a visual narrative across the inner and outer narthexes, guiding visitors through a carefully constructed theological story. In the funerary chapel, or parekklesion, the frescoes explore themes of death and salvation, culminating in the well-known Anastasis scene — one of the most dynamic representations of resurrection in medieval art.

Following the Ottoman conquest, the building was converted into a mosque and later functioned as a museum for much of the 20th century. After a long period of restoration between 2020 and 2024, it has reopened and now operates again as a mosque.

Today, visitors can still observe its mosaics and frescoes, making it one of the most important sites in Istanbul for understanding the artistic and spiritual world of late Byzantium.

Conclusion

The Byzantine churches of Istanbul are not defined by a single style or period.

They range from monumental imperial foundations to smaller, more intimate structures, reflecting the changing priorities of the city across centuries. Some represent the height of Byzantine power, while others reveal its final artistic and spiritual expressions.

Together, they form a continuous record of transformation.

From early Christian basilicas to domed masterpieces, from imperial mausoleums to neighborhood mosques, these buildings illustrate how Constantinople evolved into Istanbul without losing the physical traces of its past.

Exploring them is not simply about visiting historical sites.

It is about understanding how architecture, religion, and daily life intersected in one of the most complex cities in history.

Byzantine History Tour in Istanbul

My name is Serhat Engul, and I have been working as a licensed tour guide in Istanbul since 2004. One of the most rewarding aspects of my work is guiding visitors through the Byzantine layers of the city.

If this topic interests you, a guided walk can help you connect these monuments into a meaningful historical narrative — rather than experiencing them as isolated sites.

The post 15 Byzantine Churches in Istanbul (2026 Update) appeared first on Istanbul Clues.

In addition, some early Church Fathers, who were recognized and respected by all sects of Christianity, also lived in Anatolia. Examples include St. Nicholas, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom.

Saint Basil, one of the three important saints mentioned in the upper line, was born in Caesarea (Kayseri) in 330. Bringing a new discipline to the early monastery life, Saint Basil the Great is highly respected in churches all over the world, especially in the Orthodox Christian church.

First Examples of Christian Monasticism

The spread of Christianity began with Jesus’ death in 30s. The apostles went to the prominent cities of the ancient world, spreading Christianity. St. Peter, the most important apostle of Jesus, founded the Cave Church of Saint Peter in Antioch. St. John came to Ephesus with the Virgin Mary. Today, the house of the Virgin Mary and St. John’s Basilica can still be seen in Ephesus.

However, Christianity, which began to spread rapidly, was not welcomed by the Roman Empire. Romans with polytheistic religion followed a policy of persecution over Christianity for years. During this period, those who died for Christianity became martyrs. St. George, a Roman officer, was one of the most famous figures of this period. There are many churches in Turkey dedicated to him.

There is a 300-year period in which Christians had to hide for worship. During this period, Cappadocia region was one of the most popular places. Christians hiding in underground cities such as Derinkuyu and Kaymakli were finally freed in 313 with the Edict of Milan issued by Emperor Constantine.

The principles of Christianity were determined by the First Council of Nicaea. In half a century from Emperor Constantine to Emperor Theodosius, Christianity became the state religion of Rome. The first examples of Christian Monasticism emerged under these favorable conditions.

The faithful Christians, who followed the suffering of Jesus, wanted to live like him. A chapter in the Bible that describes the retreat of Jesus in the desert was an example of monks. It is believed that Jesus fasted in the desert for 40 days and 40 nights and resisted Satan’s temptations.

The first monk to retreat to practice Jesus’ example was Saint Anthony the Great. This cleric, also known as “Saint Anthony of Egypt”, opened a new chapter in Christian worship. Today there is a monastery in Egypt dedicated to Saint Anthony. The Monastery of Saint Anthony whose picture you can see above, symbolizes such a deep history.

Cave Monasteries in Cappadocia

Living the monk’s life soon became popular. Young and passionate Christians wanted to push the limits of human will. They also wanted to experience the simple life that Jesus recommended. There was no traditional example of monastic life in the early period. Individuals followed their own path and did not recognize the authority of the church that organized Christianity.

The most famous monk of early Christianity Saint Simeon Stylites was a “Column Saint”. Although it may seem strange at first glance, St. Simeon was undoubtedly the most popular person of this period. Simeon, who began to live on a rock near today’s city of Aleppo, then turned his residence into a column and spent his life there. People who admired his will showed up every day and brought him food and water.

Simeon’s fame spread throughout the Christian world, and his place became a center of pilgrimage. Many monks followed the path he opened. There lived another monk named Simeon Stylites the Younger, who followed the example of the first Saint Simeon. Today there is a church dedicated to Simeon Stylites the Younger in Cappadocia and a monastery in Antioch (now Antakya).

The reason I explained this was how early Christian monks followed an improvised method. Those who wanted to retreat also flocked to Cappadocia, which was a convenient geography. The main reason for this was the tufted soil of Cappadocia, which could be easily shaped with simple cutting tools. Thus, the first examples of cave monasteries in Cappadocia were built. In the early period of monastic life in Cappadocia, single-person caves were common.

Anatolian Christians, who wanted to isolate themselves from society, settled in the caves here in the 4th century. But the people who were in seclusion had to eat something. They could only meet their needs with the help of people around, like Simeon in the previous example. This system, which the monks had always consumed and never participated in production, would create social problems.

The Rule of Saint Basil the Great

Saint Basil the Great was born in 329 in Caesarea (now Kayseri). Caesarea a city in the Cappadocia region, was one of the most important Christian centers of Eastern Anatolia. In time, Saint Basil ascended to the bishop of Caesarea and became the highest ranking cleric in the city.

Touring the valleys of Cappadocia, Basil examined the life of the monks. No matter how admirable the monks endured, it produced no value for society. It was also outside the church organization represented by Basil the Great.

He decided to gather the Christian monks, which had spread to the valleys of Cappadocia, under a new discipline. Accordingly, the monks would live in small groups, not alone. Within each monastery there would be a certain hierarchy and would be ruled with absolute discipline. The monks would be under the domination of the bishop of the city and would follow the order of the church.

In the monasteries there would be chapels to pray alone, as well as dining rooms that would make a common life possible. Cappadocia Monasteries would produce their own food in the garden of the church and would not depend on the outside. Thus, small groups of monks in the monasteries would also participate in production and lead a life in harmony with society.

These rules set by St. Basil set an example for monastic life all over the world. Because of this important role in Christianity, St. Basil is respected in all Christian sects. He was honored as one of the three great patriarchs in the Eastern Church.

The saints, known as the Three Holy Hierarchs, are Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, and John Chrysostom of Antioch. The relics of these three scholars can now be seen in the Patriarchal Church of St George in Istanbul.

Monastic Life in Byzantine Cappadocia

Volcanic lands formed in millions of years after the eruption of volcanoes in Cappadocia made a unique monastic life possible here. The fairy-tale geography of Cappadocia allowed the monks to dedicate themselves to Jesus as if they were in another world.

Those who visit Cappadocia today visit the monastery churches, the foundation of which was laid by Saint Basil. Examples of monastery life in Cappadocia can be seen in all Cappadocia valleys, especially the Ihlara Valley and Goreme Open Air Museum.

Monastic life in Byzantine Cappadocia peaked between the 11th and 13th centuries. Today, traces of that period can still be seen in Byzantine mosaics in the cave churches of Cappadocia.

Of course, it is difficult to understand the perspective of people who lived in the Middle Ages under the conditions of today. In order to understand how the people of that time devoted themselves to monkhood, it is necessary to read the life of religious scholars such as St. Simeon, St. Basil and St. Antonius.

By reading the lives of these early religious scholars, you can add a special meaning to your visit to the rock churches of Cappadocia. The Dark Church, Buckle Church and Selime Monastery in Cappadocia enable you to trace this period.

More About Cappadocia

Cappadocia is one of Turkey’s most important tourist destinations. If you are planning a trip to Cappadocia, you can review the comprehensive articles on this site. I would like to suggest you three articles about this region:

In order to decide where to stay in Cappadocia, the best cave hotels in Cappadocia blog post may be helpful. If you are preparing a travel itinerary in Cappadocia, the article on things to do in Cappadocia may be of use to you.

Finally, you can read the Cappadocia hot air balloon article, which provides a lot of information about the most popular activity of Cappadocia, the balloon tours. Joining a balloon flight in Cappadocia will give you the opportunity to take amazing photos of the volcanic formations.

Written by Serhat Engul

The post History of the Monastic Life in Cappadocia (2024) appeared first on Istanbul Clues.

It may be surprising to come across such a detailed article on Tetrarchy in an Istanbul blog. However, the road to the establishment of Constantinople and its declaration as the capital of Roman Empire began with the Tetrarchy.

In this article you can find maps depicting the Tetrarchy period. In addition, the Tetrarchy emperors and the ciwil wars that took place in this period are noted in detail. In order to explain this period, I would like to make a brief introduction to Roman history.

Crisis of the Third Century

After Julius Caesar’s adopted son Octavius was enthroned as “Augustus”, the Roman Empire witnessed a long rising period. The prosperity of the empire peaked during Nerva-Antonine Dynasty (96-192) and it continued during the Severan Dynasty (193-235) despite ups and downs.

When Severus Alexander was executed by his own soldiers in 235, a period of turmoil called the Crisis of the Third Century began in the history of the Roman Empire. During this 50 years of long crisis period, emperors were assassinated one after another and they couldn’t rule the empire more than a couple of years.

The emperor who ended this chaotic era was Emperor Diocletian. Diocletian served as an officer in the cavalry army of Emperor Carus and rose rapidly due to his military success.

After Carus’ unexpected death, his son Carinus and Numerius seized the power. However, the prominent figures of the Roman Empire and Diocletian, the most popular general of the army, didn’t want Carus’ sons. Therefore, they settled accounts at the Battle of the Margus nearby Serbia. Carinus died in the battle and his brother Numerius was probably assassinated.

In the end, Diocletian claimed the throne as the Roman Emperor in 284. Diocletian’s 20 years reign began in the empire that would end by his voluntary abdication. Diocletian was a very unusual man and he was the first emperor in the Roman Empire that would abdicate the throne willingly. He spent his retirement years by doing farming at Split in Croatia.

The Roman Tetrarchy (Rule of Four)

Diocletian probably had tendencies to share the power even before he claimed the throne. Because he knew that one of the biggest problems in the Roman Empire was the succession system. Even after the most prosperous times, civil wars were inevitable when the emperors did not leave a decent heir.

Another problem was that Rome was too big to be ruled by a single person. Thus, Diocletian decided on the The Roman Tetrarchy (Rule of Four) system, which divided the empire between two senior rulers and included the junior emperors who would follow them.

The two senior emperors who ruled the empire during the Tetrarchy would be called “Augustus” and the two junior emperors under them would be called “Caesar”. This system caused great wars that would change Roman history. You can find all the details about this period in the following 15 titles.

1. Maximian Becomes “Augustus”

One of the reasons Diocletian wanted to introduce the Tetrarchy was to ensure continuity in administration. Because during the crisis of the 3rd century, the life of the emperors was very short due to coups. There was a perception among the people and the soldiers that the emperor who ascended the throne could not stay in power for more than a few years.

As Diocletian was aware of this perception, he was worried that the reforms he was going to initiate would be left unfinished. Therefore, his first action was to divide the rule into two. While he ruled the Eastern provinces, Maximian would become the second “Augustus” and rule the West.

During these years, the Roman Empire had big problems both in the East and the West. According to Diocletian, an emperor engaged in reforms could not simultaneously lead wars. In order to make quick and firm decisions, two rulers with absolute authority in both sides were necessary.

There was a fight with Persian Empire over Syria and Armenia in the East. On the other hand, there was a usurper emperor named Carausius in the Britain. He claimed himself as the “Emperor of the North”. The first thing Diocletian expected from his colleague Maximian was to take Britain back.

Although Carausius was seen as a usurper by the Romans, he took control of the legions in Britain and he was accepted by the public. Also, he managed the trade in Britain successfully. As he brought wealth and prosperity, he was supported both in England and nearby countries.

Under these circumstances, Maximian’s march to Britain failed. A storm destroyed the ships of the Roman Empire’s navy and the campaign (290) launched with limited force turned out to be a flop.

2. The Roman Tetrarchy Map

Diocletian knew the empire was in danger of being torn apart. As was the case in Britain and Egypt later, the commanders in the army started to declare themselves as Tyrants and steal lands from the Roman Empire.

Diocletian saw that the co-imperial system did not solve the problems either, and promoted two generals, Constantius Chlorus in the West and Galerius in the East, as Caesars. Now let’s take a look at the power sharing of the Tetrarchy (Rule of Four).

On The Roman Tetrarchy Map above you can see exactly how the emperors shared the lands. Maximian rules the West as “Augustus” and Diocletian rules the East as “Augustus” as senior emperors.

Constantius as “Caesar” rules in the West and Galerius as “Caesar” in the East as junior emperors. The Caesars’ task is to quickly move into troubled areas and lead wars. It is Diocletian who has absolute authority among all rulers and makes the final decisions regarding appointments.

What was expected of the newly appointed caesars was the rapid resolution of problems requiring military intervention. To this end, Constantius was to march on the usurper in Britain. Galerius, on the other hand, would resolve border conflicts with the Persians.

3. Constantius Recaptured Britain

Constantius Chlorus (father of Constantine the Great) had been a high ranking commander in Maximian’s army. He drew lessons from the failed campaign against Britain. Therefore, he applied different tactics this time. He took control of all the ports in Gaul and blocked all the trade routes to Britain, therefore hitting Britain where it hurts.

Until then, Carausius ruled Britain successfully but his enemies took advantage of the fact that the island was isolated and assassinated him. The leading figure of the plot was a bureaucrat named Allectus and he declared himself as the new Augustus. However, his rule turned out to be a short one.

Constantius charged against the enemy. He divided his army into two to puzzle the enemy and he took Allectus by surprise by marching towards the enemy with General Asclepiodotus simultaneously. Therefore, the hardest operation (the recapturing of Britain) of its time was carried out successfully.

Constantius had recaptured Britain, and from now on his name would be known as the “Conqueror of Britain”. Constantine the Great would benefit greatly from his father’s prestige in the future.

4. Galerius’ Fight against the Persians

An emperor named Narseh became the ruler of Sasanians (Second Persian Empire) and he wanted to follow the footsteps of his father Shapur because his father attacked Antioch, a land that belonged to the Roman Empire, and he took the Roman Emperor Valerian hostage. And Narseh, in the same fashion, wanted to seize Syria and the nearby lands.

Galerius was after avenging Valerian who died under captivity. Moreover, he wanted the end Persians’ struggle for power over Syria too. The first clash of the two emperors turned out to be a disaster for the Romans. Galerius was beaten at the Battle of Carrhae (modern day Harran) and they withdrew to Antioch. Diocletian got mad at the result and pressured his subordinate Galerius to finish the task he started.

The second war (the Battle of Satala) took place in Armenia. Galerius was stronger thanks to the reinforcements from the Balkans and he was ready for the battle and the land structure was suitable for the legions. On the other hand, the movement area of the Persian cavalry, which was a decisive factor on the outcome of the former battles, was limited this time.

The Romans were the clear winners of this battle thanks to the conditions that were in their favor. Galerius’ fight against the Persians ended in victory, and even the Harem tent of Narseh’s wives and kids were seized. Therefore, Valerian, who died during his captivity, was avenged.

5. Abdication of the Emperor Diocletian

After 20 years’ of rule, Diocletian decided to abdicate the throne. He wanted the Tetrarchy that he established to continue. Therefore, he encouraged Maximian to abdicate the throne simultaneously. Even though Maximian was not so willing to do so, he had to accept his fate.

Therefore, Constantius in the West and Galerius in the East were promoted to being “Augustus”. However, Constantius, “the Conqueror of Britain”, lost his life just after one year of his promotion. Following his death, his son, Constantine was declared as “Augustus” by the Western army.

However, Galerius didn’t accept this fait accompli. He appointed Severus, his old friend from the army, as Augustus in the West and the young Constantine was his subordinate as Caesar. The young emperor who would be called “Constantine the Great” in the future took this promotion as satisfactory “for now”. Also, Maximinus Daia was appointed as Caesar in the East.

In short, while the senior emperors were Galerius and Severus, the junior emperors were Constantine and Maximinus Daia.

6. Rebellion against Severus

This was the new order, however, it didn’t last long. Severus, who ruled Italy and the surrounding lands, oppressed the people with heavy taxes. For this reason, a great rebellion broke out in Rome against Severus.

The commanders of the army took side with the public and they declared Maxentius, son of the former “Augustus” Maximian, as the emperor. Maxentius was already expecting to be appointed at least as Caesar after his father’s abdication and it was time to take what was his.

Maxentius moved to Italy, where his father ruled before, and grew stronger there. He defeated the usurper Domitius Alexander who declared himself as the emperor of Carthage and he annexed it. However, the senior emperor Galerius at Nicomedia didn’t approve Maxentius’ rule and ordered Severus to take Rome back.

However, as Severus was coming closer to lay siege to Rome, his soldiers were reluctant to fight on his side, because most of the Severus’ soldiers had served Maximian who was the former Augustus. They didn’t want to fight against his son Maxentius.

As Severus felt helpless, he wanted to fall back to Ravenna and gather men. However, he was too weak even to accomplish it. He surrendered to Maximian in exchange for his life to be pardoned. However, Maximian and his son Maxentius didn’t keep their promise and they killed Severus.

7. Galerius’ March on Italy

As Galerius received the news, he went mad. Galerius decided to march on Italy with his army to restore order for the Tetrarchy. However, he realized quickly that it wasn’t easy to seize Italy. The cities blocked their way and his moves became restricted. He had to withdraw his army in order not to have the same fate as Severus.

Galerius decided to get the advice of Diocletian who was enjoying his retirement days. It was nobody but Diocletian whose words would be listened in the days that Tetrarchy was in crisis. After all, Diocletian was the founder of Tetrarchy system.

After Galerius’ unsuccessful Italy campaign, a struggle for power began between the former emperor Maximian and his son Maxentius.  Maxentius was grateful to his father for helping him in his fight against Severus and Galerius. However, he didn’t want his father to overshadow his authority. As a result, Maximian was exiled from Italy as he did things against his son.

Maximian went to Galerius’ palace at Nicomedia and asked for refuge. Normally, Galerius would be expected to punish Maximian after what he did in Italy. However, as he didn’t want this incident to overshadow his upcoming meeting with Diocletian, he decided to bring Maximian with him to this meeting.

8. Tetrarchy Rule is Reorganized

The three emperors met after long years. Maximian begged Diocletian to come back. He wanted to rule as “Augustus” like before. However, Diocletian had no interest in going back to politics. And he warned Maximian not to meddle with Tetrarchy.

As a result of the meeting, the Tetrarchy rule was reorganized. According to the new system, Licinius became “Augustus” by Galerius’ recommendation. Meanwhile, Constantine and Maximinus Daia remained as Caesar. Constantine’s expectation to be appointed as Augustus didn’t come true and Maxentius was declared as usurper in Italy.

In short, while the senior emperors were Galerius and Licinius, the junior emperors were Constantine and Maximinus Daia.

9. Maximian Creates a New Problem

After being exiled from Italy by his son and not being welcomed well by Galerius in the East, Maximian decided to move into his son-in-law Constantine’s.

Constantine was married to the former Augustus Maximian’s sister Fausta. Therefore, he didn’t treat him badly despite his usurper son Maxentius. However, Maximian continued to create new problems here too. As he tried to provoke Constantine’s legions in Gaul against him, he was forced to commit suicide.

Maximian, who served as “Augustus” with Diocletian for 20 years and was also the co-founder of Tetrarchy system, became history. And soon the system they had established with Diocletian would also be history.

10. Tetrarchy after the Death of Galerius

Meanwhile, something unexpected happened and Emperor Galerius died. Galerius was the insurance of the Tetrarchy system and the death of Galerius plunged Rome into new crises.

“Caesar” Maximinus Daia declared himself as Augustus in the East and seized the capital Nicomedia. The other “Caesar” Constantine immediately declared himself Augustus as well. Therefore, the new order that was agreed in the meeting with Diocletian became obsolete in just a few years.

When all the rulers from his father’s era (Maximian, Diocletian, and Galerius) died, Constantine started thinking that his time to become the sole ruler came.

11. The Battle of the Milvian Bridge

Although I haven’t mentioned it so far, a new period that would change the fate of the Roman Empire began. Just in 20 years, the religion of the Roman Empire was going to change from Paganism to Christianity and the new capital was going to be Constantinople (Istanbul). The person who was going to make these changes was Constantine, the son of Constantius Chlorus.

Constantine’s steps to create a one-man rule started with beating his enemy Maxentius in the South. Constantine deployed most of his troops that he left in Britain, Gaul, and Spain and he began to march to Rome with his army of 30,000 soldiers.

He seized Torino and Milano with ease, but he faced a serious opposition at Verona. However, the way to Rome was open after the death of Pompeianus in the Battle of Verona, the most important man of Maxentius.

Although Maxentius decided to stay in defensive position till the last moment, he faced Constantine on the battleground by leaving Rome. The army of Maxentius was larger and he actually had a chance to beat Constantine.

However, the soldiers in Constantine’s army were strong soldiers who had great experience in years. Moreover, they were loyal to Constantine to the death. Maxentius’ soldiers, on the other hand, tended to panic if things went wrong, which was the case during the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

Constantine’s troops destroyed Maxentius and despite being relatively fewer in numbers, they didn’t let the enemy surround them. Maxentius couldn’t take the pressure and he wanted to fall back to Tiber River and gather his power back. However, he couldn’t manage it.

Maxentius had actually fallen into his own trap. He had destroyed all the bridges so that Constantine could not cross, and there was only two bridges he could use to retreat. And they were almost a ruin, too. As the bridge that stood on weak ropes collapsed with hundreds of soldiers on it, the other soldiers ran to the stone bridge called the Milvian Bridge that was too narrow.

However, most of them were crushed and fell to the river. Maxentius was one of the people that fell into the river and he died by drowning. And Constantine was welcomed like a hero when he arrived Rome.

12. Licinius and Constantine

Constantine established a total rule over the Western Europe while Licinius was in power in the Balkans. These two rulers made a deal and the aim of the deal was to get rid of Maximinus Daia who controlled all the trade routes in the Middle East.

Maximinus Daia had taken control of the whole Middle East after the death of Galerius. Despite having a relatively large army, he was beaten by Licinius. Now only Licinius and Constantine remained of the Tetrarchy.

Meanwhile, Maximinus Daia was the only emperor who was still in favor of the polytheist Pagan religions and the Jupiter Cult. Following the victory of the Milvian Bridge, Constantine had declared the the Edict of Milan and he ended the mistreatment of Christians that lasted for 300 years. Licinius also appeared to be in favor of this decision.

13. Battle of Chrysopolis, the End of the Tetrarchy

Tetrarchy, which was founded by Diocletian, collapsed once and for all. As just before Tetrarchy was declared, there were two emperors on each side, which were Licinius in the East and Constantine in the West. However, although he wedded his daughter to Licinius and became relatives with him, Constantine had the desire to be the one and only emperor of the Roman Empire.

Licinius, on the other hand, was involved in an assassination attempt against Constantine and he basically put his head in a noose. Constantine won the battle against Licinius that took place in the Balkans (Adrianople) and a short period of peace phase began. However, the fierce treatment of Licinius towards the Christians caused a great reaction in the West.

Constantine wanted to end the co-ruling system permanently and by crossing the Dardanelles Strait (Hellespont) he crashed Licinius’ army that was in a defensive position on the Bosphorus. The army of Licinius fled to Chrysopolis (Uskudar) on the Asian Side and they were destroyed there at the Battle of Chrysopolis.

Licinius was taken as hostage and although he was forgiven by Constantine at first, he was executed later. According to some sources, the reason for the change of decision was his desire to gather an army and fight against Constantine.

Therefore, the last emperor from the Roman Tetrarchy Rule also became history and Constantine, who never lost a single battle on the battlefield till then, became the only ruler of the Roman Empire.

14. Foundation of Constantinople

Constantine disliked the old aristocracy of Rome. Moreover, Rome had already lost its function of being the center of the empire. During the Tetrarchy period, senior emperors such as Diocletian and Galerius lived in Nicomedia in the East.

Constantine decided to establish a new capital. While fighting Licinius, he realized the strategic importance of the Bosphorus and admired the natural protection Byzantium provided.

Byzantium was declared the new capital and was completely rebuilt in 6 years. The foundation of Constantinople was celebrated with ceremonies in 330. The most important buildings of the new capital were the Hippodrome of Constantinople, the Forum of Constantine and the Church of the Holy Apostles.

15. The Byzantine Empire

Constantine’s move of the Roman Empire’s power center to the east allowed the Roman cult to survive for another 1000 years. Combining the administrative, military and architectural foundations of Rome with the Ancient Greek culture, the Byzantine Empire lived until 1453.

Although the “Eastern Roman Empire” is referred to in modern history as the Byzantine Empire, they had always considered themselves the Romans and successors of Constantine the Great.

References

While writing this article, I benefited from Mike Duncan‘s The History of Rome podcast and John Julius Norwich‘s book called Byzantium. I used online encyclopedias like Wikipedia and Britannica to double check some of the information.

I would also like to thank those who prepared the anonymous maps about the history of the Roman Empire. Thanks to these colorful maps, it was possible to explain visually the distribution of authority and area under the Tetrarchy.

Finally, in the update I made in 2025, I used images created with artificial intelligence. Thanks to visual generator AI engines such as Canva, Leonardo AI and Dalle, history writings came to life.

Roman Tetrarchy Map and Civil Wars by Serhat Engul

The post Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy in Rome (With Maps) appeared first on Istanbul Clues.

Since St. John has an important reputation in the Christian world, it is worth mentioning the situation of Christianity in those years. As it is known, after Jesus’ death in 30 BC, his apostles began to spread Christianity to the world. They established the first churches in the most important cities of Antiquity such as Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus and Rome.

The Roman Empire, the world’s greatest political force, did not welcome the spread of Christianity and responded cruelly. The oppression and persecution against Christians lasted for nearly three centuries. Finally, in 313, Christianity was released with the Edict of Milan issued by Emperor Constantine. Even Constantine himself became a Christian. (according to traditional belief)

Christians, who had been persecuted until the reign of Emperor Constantine, could now live their religious life freely. With the decisions taken at the Council of Nicea in 325, Christian centers were determined. Accordingly, Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria would be the main episcopal centers.

Along with the freedom of belief, there has been tremendous progress in Christian philosophy. Early bishops laid the foundations of the rituals of worship that are still practiced in churches all over the world today. John Chrysostom was born just in such a convenient time and engraved his name in the history of the church in capital letters.

Life Story of St. John Chrysostom

The life of Saint John Chrysostom (aka Ioannes Chrysostomos) was full of hardship and struggle. Born in 349 in Antioch, John lost his father, an officer, at an early age and was raised by his mother. Anthusa, who had a strong character, helped his son John receive a very good education. John was raised in the hands of Libanius, one of the best orator of the time.

John, who had a great passion for Christianity at a young age, chose to lead an ascetic life. Starting to live in the monastery as a monk, John concentrated primarily on self-discipline. During the monk’s life, John only ate enough food to survive and slept for several hours a day, devoting all his time to praying. However, this ordeal lasted 6 years between 375 and 381, caused permanent damage to John’s stomach and liver.

John’s health began to deteriorate and he decided to return to Antioch and serve in the church. He would continue his life as a deacon. During the years he served the church, he gave great sermons and gained a great reputation among the people of the city. John, who supported his early oratorial education with a simple discourse that appealed to the public, succeeded in influencing everyone, whether Christian or not.

1. Priesthood Years in Antioch

Raising the priesthood in 386, John’s area of ​​responsibility expanded. He served in the Golden Church in Antioch between 386 and 397 years. He was loved by the public for conveying the teachings of the Bible to the daily life. For example, the sermons in Alexandria, the second most important church in the East at the time, were confusing because it contained abstract concepts. In contrast, John’s narratives in Antioch were simple enough to inspire people’s own way of life.

A rebellion against the Emperor Theodosius I erupted in Antioch during John’s priesthood. During the rebellion that soon spread throughout the city, the statues of the emperor were destroyed. John, who gave 20 long sermons during the rebellion, made a great effort to calm the events. Thanks to John’s passionate oratory, the people of the city calmed down and the rebellion ended. Theodosius I, who took away all the privileges of Antioch and reduced it to the status of a town with his first anger, stepped back and returned the rights of the city.

John, whose fame spread throughout the empire, became known as Chrysostomos, which means “Golden Mouth”. His success paved the way for his appointment as Archbishop to Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. He would continue to serve as the highest-ranking clergyman in the capital.

2. Archbishop of Constantinople

This was unexpected for John Chrysostom when he was appointed Archbishop of Constantinople. When John came to the capital, the first thing he observed was the flamboyant life of the people. In his sermons he criticized the life of the rich and stressed that they should share their wealth with the poor. He refused to participate in the flamboyant dinners he was invited to. He criticized luxury clothes and lifestyle.

John’s homilies, which recommended living a simple life, received great interest and appreciation from the poor. On the other hand, it also disturbed the rich. In addition, his reforms within the church were not welcomed by the church staff. John quickly made many enemies in the imperial capital of Constantinople.

John’s criticism also reached the palace, the peak of this lavish lifestyle. Even Empress Aelia Eudoxia was the target of John’s arrows of criticism. However, clashing with Emperor Arcadius and his wife Aelia Eudoxia would have caused John Chrysostom much harm in the long run.

3. Conflict with Alexandria

Theophilus, the Patriarch of Alexandria at the time, wanted to influence Constantinople. However, the presence of a popular person like John prevented him from achieving this goal. John welcomed the priests who had fallen into a theological dispute with Theophilus and hosted them in Constantinople. This gave Theophilus the opportunity to take action against John.

The exiled priests supported the teachings of Origin, which were incompatible with Orthodox Christianity. For this reason, they were condemned by the patriarch. Theophilus made the same accusation against John, who hosted these priests known as the Tall Brothers.

Constantinople was in conflict with Alexandria, and there were great accusations. Council of clergy gathered to reveal who was right. John, who had many enemies among the influential people, was exiled by the decision of the council. Of course, Empress Aelia Eudoxia had an impact on the outcome of this trial against John.

John Chrysostom was exiled into Anatolia. However, the night he left the city, there was a terrible earthquake. Everyone was scared, including the Empress. This disaster was interpreted by the people of the city as the wrath of God. Therefore, John was recalled and his position and reputation restored. But peace would not last long.

Aelia Eudoxia continued the same flamboyant life and John continued to criticize. A statue of Aelia Eudoxia was erected in the square near Hagia Sophia, the most sacred temple of the period. For John, this was clearly an insult. John suggested that Aelia Eudoxia brought back pagan rituals. This time the conflict would have irreversible consequences.

4. Exile from Constantinople

John Chrysostom was first exiled from Constantinople to Cappadocia. However, the people of the capital protested this decision. After a while, the protests turned into clashes. A fire broke out in Hagia Sophia (1st generation building) due to riots in the city and the church was devastated.

Emperor Arcadius decided to exile John further because of events in the capital. This was also due to the fact that John complained about the emperor and the empress to the Pope and the leading religious authorities of the time. John’s letters to religious authorities such as Rome, Milan and Aquileia disturbed the palace. Because many religious leaders, especially the Pope, condemned the emperor for his actions.

John died on his way to the exile in Georgia. (407) He had severe illnesses from his days as a monk, and his body could not bear this journey. Ironically, Empress Eudoxia died shortly thereafter.

5. The Legacy of St. John Chrysostom

The influence of John Chrysostom in the capital continued after his death. So much so that during the reign of Emperor Theodosius II, son of Arcadius and Eudoxia, his relics were brought back to Constantinople (438) and moved to The Church of the Holy Apostles, where members of the royal family were buried.

During the Sack of Constantinople, which took place in 1204, the relics of the city’s greatest Saints Gregorius and John were stolen. St John’s relics had remained in St. Peter’s Basilica for centuries. In 2004, the relics were returned to the Patriarchal Church of St George in Istanbul as a sign of goodwill by the Vatican.

The legacy of St John Chrysostom has survived to this day. The sermons and liturgy of John Chrysostom are highly respected in both Catholic and Orthodox churches. The Ecumenical Patriarchate in Istanbul attributes many historical monuments (the patriarchate throne and pulpit) to him. He is still considered a very popular saint in the Christendom.

Conclusion

While writing the life story of John Chrysostom, I used images that I generated with artificial intelligence to stimulate the imagination of readers.

There may be some historical errors in these images created by ChatCPT based on my written descriptions. I apologize to those who are sensitive about religious issues for any misunderstandings that may occur.

However, I believe that these images, although imperfect, make the life story of this important figure more vivid and interesting.

Written by Serhat Engul

The post Life Story of ST. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM of Antioch appeared first on Istanbul Clues.

Sultan Suleiman’s father was Selim I (the Resolute). Although Selim was the ruler for only 8 years, he had conquered important lands in the history of religion such as Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. He also conquered Egypt and gave the Ottomans superiority in the Eastern Mediterranean trade.

Selim I had doubled the Ottoman lands and filled the empire’s treasury with gold. His only son was Sehzade (Prince) Suleiman. Thus, when Selim I died in 1520, his son ascended the throne under the name of Sultan Suleiman.

Normally, in the Ottoman Empire, the sultan would send his sons to certain cities as governors to learn the state administration. When the sultan died, there were tough struggles for the throne between his sons. However, since Sultan Suleiman was the only son, his accession to the throne was peaceful.

Sultan Suleiman’s Wife, Children and Sisters

In this article, you can find information about Sultan Suleiman’s wife, children and sisters. Sultan Suleiman’s period was a brilliant period of the empire, not only militarily but also architecturally. In this way, those of the sultan’s family left many mosques, baths, palaces and tombs in Istanbul.

In the meantime, it should be noted that we have very few resources on the private life of sultans. Since what happened in the sultan’s harem was kept secret, it is not possible to be 100% sure about the events of this period.

1. Mahidevran Sultan

Mahidevran Sultan was the most important woman in Suleiman’s palace when he was still a prince. Mahidevran was the chief concubine at Suleiman’s palace in Manisa and gave birth to her first son, Mustafa.

In the Ottoman Empire, the princes were appointed as governors to certain cities of Anatolia and learned to rule there. The most prominent of these cities, known as Sanjak, was Manisa.

The sultan’s sending a son to Manisa meant that he wished him to be the future sultan. On the other hand, it was not certain that the prince in Manisa would ascend to the throne.

When the sultan died, the strongest of the princes took the throne. Of course, the prince should have received support from the statesmen and the army to ensure this. The prince who could provide this would be the next sultan.

Since Sehzade Suleiman did not have a brother, he was directly assigned to the Manisa sanjak. It was already known that he would become a sultan. During this period, Mahidevran was the woman closest to the sultan.

2. Hurrem Sultan

Hurrem Sultan was born in Ruthenia, which was part of the Kingdom of Poland in the past, and is now in Ukraine. She was taken prisoner during the looting of her hometown and somehow ended up in the Palace in Istanbul.

There was an absolute hierarchy in the harem. While the ruler of the Harem was the Sultan’s mother (Valide Sultan), there were the sultan’s sisters, daughters and Haseki Sultans (women who gave birth to a son to the sultan) under her, respectively.

It was very difficult for Hurrem (aka Roxelana) to rise in the Harem hierarchy and become the closest person to Sultan Suleiman. However, Hurrem not only rose in the Harem over time, and even managed to become the most powerful woman in Ottoman history.

Sultan Suleiman married Hurrem and removed her from the status of concubine. Thus, Hurrem Sultan, as the wife of Sultan Suleiman, would have the right to do charity work like other women in the royal family (Sultan’s mother, daughter and sisters).

Hurrem Sultan had Mimar Sinan, the most famous palace architect of the Ottoman Empire, built a Turkish bath in Sultanahmet (Haseki Hurrem Sultan Hamam) and a mosque complex (Haseki Sultan Mosque) within the boundaries of the Historical Peninsula (The core of Istanbul, formerly known as Constantinople)

3. Sehzade Mustafa

Sehzade Mustafa was the eldest son of Sultan Suleiman, born from Mahidevran. Sehzade Mustafa was the favorite son of Sultan Suleiman in the early years of his reign. He served in the Manisa sanjak, where the heir expected to ascend to the throne would rule.

However, over time, Mustafa’s relationship with his father deteriorated. It is rumored that Hurrem Sultan and her ally “the Grand Vizier” Rustem Pasha also played a role in this. Mustafa was accused of conspiring with the Shah of Iran. As a result, he was executed by his father for treason.

Sehzade Mustafa’s death caused great indignation in the army. The majority of senior commanders and bureaucrats saw Mustafa as the next sultan. The murder of Shahzade Mustafa had become a major trauma in Turkish history.

4. Sehzade Mehmed

Sehzade Mehmed was the first child of Sultan Suleiman and Hurrem Sultan. Mehmed eventually became the favorite son of Sultan Suleiman. However, he died of smallpox at a young age.

When Sehzade Mehmed died at the age of 20, Sehzade Mosque, one of the most beautiful mosques in Istanbul, was built in his memory. This mosque is the first of the three great works of the famous architect Sinan.

5. Sehzade Selim

Sehzade Selim was the second eldest son of Sultan Suleiman and Hurrem Sultan. Selim had strong rivals such as Mustafa and Mehmed on his way to the throne, but in the end he became the next sultan.

The famous architect Sinan had built his second great work, the Suleymaniye Mosque, for Sultan Suleiman (above picture). His third major work is Selimiye Mosque, which he built for Sehzade Selim, who ascended the throne under the name of Selim II.

6. Sehzade Bayezid

Sehzade Bayezid was the third son of Sultan Suleiman and Hurrem Sultan. After the death of Sehzade Mustafa, who was seen as the future sultan by the bureaucracy and the army, it was expected that Bayezid would ascend to the throne.

However, Bayezid’s relations with Sultan Suleiman were not good. Sultan Suleiman supported Sehzade Selim in the battle of Selim and Bayezid to be the major heir. Bayezid attempted to take refuge with the Shah of Iran. As a result, Bayezid was executed on charges of treason.

7. Sehzade Cihangir

Sehzade Cihangir was the youngest child of Sultan Suleiman and Hurrem Sultan. Cihangir received a good education and became an intellectual. However, it was not possible for him to be the next sultan due to his health problems and his hunchback.

The most important work that has survived from Sehzade Cihangir is the Cihangir Mosque in Beyoglu (aka Taksim) district. Because of this mosque, Cihangir, one of the most popular neighborhoods of Istanbul, is named after this prince.

8. Mihrimah Sultan

Mihrimah Sultan was the only daughter of Sultan Suleiman and Hurrem Sultan. It is known that Sultan Suleiman loved his daughter Mihrimah very much. Mihrimah later married the “Grand Vizier” Rustem Pasha, the highest bureaucrat of the state.

Mihrimah Sultan and her husband Rustem Pasha left an important legacy to Istanbul. Mihrimah Sultan had two mosques built, one in Edirnekapi (Old City) and the other in Uskudar (Asian Side).

Rustem Pasha, at the top of the Ottoman bureaucracy, had a mosque built in Eminonu (Old City) named Rustem Pasha Mosque, which is small in size but magnificent with its decoration (above picture).

All three mosques were designed by Mimar Sinan, the most famous palace architect in Ottoman history. Rustem Pasha Mosque is famous for the magnificent Iznik tiles adorning its interior.

9. Hatice Sultan

Hatice Sultan was the daughter of the previous ruler Selim I and the sister of Sultan Suleiman. It is rumored that Sultan Suleiman loved Hatice the most among his sisters. Hatice Sultan later married Suleiman’s right-hand man, Pargali Ibrahim Pasha.

As far as we know, Ibrahim Pasha and his wife Hatice Sultan lived in Ibrahim Pasha Palace located in Sultanahmet Square after they got married. Today, this palace serves as the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.

Ibrahim Pasha was a bureaucrat who graduated from Enderun School in Topkapi Palace. While still a young prince, Suleiman became friends with Ibrahim at the Topkapi Palace.

Their friendship continued after Suleiman came to the throne. Ibrahim Pasha also had a great share in Sultan Suleiman’s early successes. As a statesman, Ibrahim Pasha was equipped with unprecedented powers in Ottoman history.

The relationship between the two deteriorated over time. It is claimed that Hurrem Sultan’s dislike of Ibrahim Pasha had an effect on this. Also, according to some historians, the pasha was poisoned by power and behaved like a sultan. As a result, Ibrahim Pasha was executed.

10. Sah Sultan

Sah Sultan was one of the most powerful of Suleiman’s sisters. Shah Sultan first married the Grand Vizier Lutfi Pasha. Shah Sultan’s marriage to Lutfi Pasha did not go well and they were divorced with the sultan’s approval. Lutfi Pasha was retired and removed from the capital.

It is believed that Shah Sultan married for the second time with Zal Mahmud Pasha. Although the date of this marriage is not very clear in the sources, it is understood from the history of a mosque built by the Zal Mahmud Pasha .

Zal Mahmud Pasha and Shah Sultan are mentioned in the inscription of the Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque, located in the Eyup district of Istanbul. This mosque in Eyup is adjacent to Eyup Sultan Mosque, which is considered the holiest mosque in Istanbul.

Conclusion

In this article, we got to know the family of Sultan Suleiman, who is known as the Lawgiver in the East and the Magnificent in the West. Sultan Suleiman’s life has come to the fore in recent years with the TV show Magnificent Century, which refers to the 16th century.

Most of the characters mentioned in this article are also in the series. Above, you can see the poster of the Magnificent Century (Turkish original name, Muhteşem Yüzyıl) series. I noted the main characters for easy recognition.

You can also read the Ottoman Empire Map article, which summarizes the history of the empire in the form of a timeline. In addition, the Ottoman Istanbul article, which tells the history of the Ottoman capital through its structures, may also interest you.

Written by Serhat Engul

The post Sultan Suleiman’s Wife, Children, Sisters (16th century) appeared first on Istanbul Clues.

The Hittites stand out as the oldest and most powerful empire in the history of Anatolia. Then we see that the Ancient Greek culture became dominant. Anatolia, which was under the rule of the Persian Empire for a period, was conquered thoroughly by Alexander the Great.

There are ancient cities in Anatolia that we can still visit today. Although these cities bear the cultural traces of the Ancient Greek period, their architectural heritage is from the Roman period.

Anatolia as a Religious Center

In the years of polytheistic religion, there were important religious centers in every corner of Anatolia. The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, Yazilikaya in Hattusa, and Mount Nemrut in Adiyaman were cultural centers whose fame spread beyond Anatolia.

In addition to these, we should also mention Gobekli Tepe, whose discovery caused great excitement in the world of archeology. Considered as the oldest temple in the world, Gobekli Tepe proved once again how deep the culture of Anatolia is.

In the early Christian period, Anatolia was again one of the most important centers. Ancient cities and regions such as Antioch, Ephesus, Cappadocia, and Byzantium provided shelter for Christians fleeing Roman persecution.

The most important battles of the late antiquity took place first between the Roman and Persian empires, and then the Byzantine and Arab empires. These wars also took place on the lands of Anatolia. Asia Minor, where these diverse cultures have come together, has a unique identity.

Anatolia (Asia Minor) Maps, History, Facts

Anatolia maps prepared by history lovers will help us discover the history of Asia Minor. We will continue to tell the story of Asia Minor in eight titles.

We will mention each of the civilizations that lived in Anatolia starting from the Bronze Age. However, the most exciting parts of our story will be the years of the Roman and Byzantine empires in Anatolia.

I am a tour guide living in Istanbul. Since my area of expertise is late antiquity and the middle ages, I will talk about these periods in more detail. While there are maps of ancient Anatolia in the first half of the article, there is the map of modern Turkey in the end.

Anatolia maps will be useful for those planning a trip to Turkey. Because you can trace the facts about the history of Anatolia described in this article by visiting museums and historical sites in Turkey.

1. Ancient Cities of Anatolia

Ancient cities of Anatolia have been identified with many things in history. I would like to briefly mention some of these historical regions and cities marked on the Anatolia map above. Some of these places have had more than one name in history. The best example of these is Istanbul, also known as Byzantium and Constantinople.

Istanbul was founded as an ancient Greek city in 2700 BC and its name was Byzantium. Known as Constantinople in Roman and Byzantine times, the city was the world’s most populous city in late antiquity. The city, which was conquered by the Ottomans in 1453, stands out as a multicultural place.

Phokaia, located in the west on the Anatolia map, is now a wonderful holiday town. Located in Izmir, one of Turkey’s largest cities, the town was one of the important settlements of the ancient Greek period. There are also Ephesus ruins in the city of Izmir, which have a magnificent Roman heritage.

Miletus is the place where Isidore of Miletus, one of the architects of Hagia Sophia, was born and raised. Isidore, a famous mathematician, was invited to Istanbul by the Byzantine emperor Justinian and was commissioned to build Hagia Sophia with the architect Anthemius. Today, it is possible to see the heritage of this ancient center in the ruins of Miletus.

Lycia was a very important region during ancient times. The region, which has a Mediterranean climate and magnificent coasts, is a tourism paradise today. Antalya, Turkey’s most popular holiday city, is also located within the borders of Lycia. There are many ruins in Lycia such as Xanthos, Olympos, Phasalis and Myra.

Hattusa, located in the middle of the map of Asia Minor, was the ancient capital of the Hittites. The Hittites were the superpower of the region along with Ancient Egypt in the late bronze age. You can visit the Hattusa ruins and the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Turkey to trace this heritage.

Cappadocia, located on the east of the Anatolia map, was a very important place in the history of early Christianity. Cappadocia, which has miraculous volcanic formations, was a place where monks flocked. You can read how Cappadocia opened a new era in Christianity from this article titled monastic life in Cappadocia.

Urartu, located at the easternmost point of the map of Asia Minor, has natural treasures such as Mount Ararat and Lake Van. Mount Ararat is a place associated with the legend of Noah’s Ark in the scriptures. This area is also where the Battle of Manzikert took place between Byzantine Empire and Seljuk Turks. (We will talk about this in more detail below.)

Pontus, on the north of the Anatolia map, was the hometown of Mithridates IV, who fought fierce battles with the Romans. Pontus, which was an important center during the Roman and Byzantine periods, is now known as Trabzon. Sumela Monastery is the most important historical place to see in Trabzon.

2. Ancient Greek Period

Anatolia had many important cultural centers in the ancient Greek period. Ephesus, the capital of the Ionian League established among ancient Greek sites, was the most important city in this region. However, there were other important centers such as Phokaia and Miletus.

3. Anatolia under Roman Rule

Anatolia reached its peak in terms of architecture under the rule of the Roman Empire. Today, you can visit the ancient cities of Pergamon, Ephesus, Aphrodisias, Perge and Aspendos to observe the Roman heritage in Turkey.

Anatolia became more important when Emperor Constantine liberated Christianity in the 300s. Places such as Byzantium, Ephesus, Antioch and Cappadocia that carried the legacy of the apostles became religious centers.

After Byzantium became the Roman capital under the name of Constantinople, the power center of the Roman Empire shifted to the east. Thus, the Roman cult, which would last a thousand years through Eastern Rome, lived in Anatolia.

4. Anatolia under Byzantine Empire

Anatolia was the heart of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire was actually a blend of cultural codes from Ancient Greece and administrative and military codes from Rome. When Christianity, which became the imperial religion, was added to this formula, the most important empire of the Middle Ages emerged.

The Byzantine Empire inherited a great feud from Rome. The fight against the deadly enemies of Persians and barbarians continued as in Roman times.

The struggle of Byzantium with the Persians in the East and the barbarian tribes in the West lasted for 300 years and only subsided during the reign of Emperor Heraclius.

Even more dangerous enemies emerged before Heraclius could celebrate his victories. The Bulgarians who settled in the Balkans and the Arabs expanded with the rise of Islam were the harbinger of new wars that would last for centuries.

Anatolia, the military recruitment factory of the Byzantine Empire, remained attached to Byzantium despite Persian and Arab attacks. However, in the 11th century, after the Battle of Manzikert, most of Anatolia was lost to the Turks.

4. Anatolia under Seljuk Empire

The migration route of Seljuk Turks from Asia can be seen on the map above. The Turks, who came from the steppes of Asia to Iran, declared Isfahan their capital and became neighbors to Anatolia and the Byzantine Empire. War was inevitable between the Seljuk Empire and Byzantium.

Seljuks who won the Battle of Manzikert captured Eastern and Central Anatolia. This was the event that triggered the Crusades. Byzantines at first recaptured their lands thanks to the early Crusades. However, in 1204, Constantinople itself became the target of the Crusaders. (This incident, called the Sack of Constantinople, happened during the fourth Crusade.)

During the rule of the Seljuk Empire, trade activities continued in Anatolia. Seljuks managed to build a life together with the local peoples in Anatolia. This heritage was beneficial for everyone during the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum period.

5. Seljuk Sultanate of Rum

After the collapse of the Seljuk Empire, its heir, Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, ruled in Anatolia. The Sultanate, whose capital was Konya (Iconium), had an administration that preserved all local cultures. The traces of this hybrid culture can still be seen in Anatolia.

Seljuk Sultanate, which existed from the 1070s to 1300s, was disintegrated due to Mongolian pressure from the east. A small principality (Ottomans) remaining from the Seljuks later turned into a giant empire.

The map of Anatolia above shows us the most important cities of late antiquity and middle ages. Constantinople, Nicomedia, Ephesus, Iconium, Caesarea, Edesa and Antioch were the most important cities in Anatolia during this period of the Crusades.

6. Anatolia during the Ottoman Empire

During the Ottoman Empire, Anatolia was the center of a state that spread to three continents. The Ottomans, who were founded around Iznik and Bursa, then captured Edirne (Adrianople) and Istanbul (Constantinople) respectively and became a serious power.

Unlike other Anatolia maps, the names of the cities are noted in Turkish in the image above. However, you can recognize many of them as they evoke ancient names. For example, Amasya (Amasis), Konya (Iconium), Antakya (Antioch), Trabzon (Trebizond).

7. Anatolia during the World War I

The Ottoman Empire experienced its peak during the Suleiman the Magnificent period. The Ottomans, who controlled the silk and spice routes and dominated the Eastern Mediterranean, enjoyed a prosperous period.

The Ottoman Empire, which expanded until the end of the 1600s, then entered a long period of decline. The Ottomans, who joined the First World War with the Germans, lost everything at the end of the war.

After World War I, Anatolia was occupied by the allied forces. The remnants of the Ottoman army started a war of liberation in and around Ankara. At the head of the Liberation Army was Mustafa Kemal, a former Ottoman general.

8. Modern Republic of Turkey

The Turkish liberation army had to fight for four years between 1919 and 1923 to save Anatolia from occupation. The modern Republic of Turkey was founded at the end of the war.

Since the Turkish War of Independence was ruled by the parliament in Ankara, it was adopted as the capital. Thus, centuries later, Istanbul lost its feature of being the capital city. But Istanbul is still the economic capital of Turkey.

Anatolia and Asia Minor Maps By Serhat Engul

The post Anatolia (Asia Minor) Map & History & Facts 2024 appeared first on Istanbul Clues.